HomeMy WebLinkAbout; Carlsbad Golf Course Data Recovery Plan; Data Recovery Plan Carlsbad Golf Course; 2004-05-01CARLSBAD GOLF COURSE DATA RECOVERY PLAN FOR
CA-SDI 8694, AND INDEXING AND PRESERVATION PLAN FOR
CA-SDI-8303 AND CA-SDI-8797 LOCUS C
CITY OF CARLSBAD, CALIFORNIA
Prepared for: Prepared by:
City of Carlsbad Gallegos & Associates
Carlsbad Village Drive 5671 Palmer Way, Suite A
Carlsbad, CA 92008 Carlsbad, CA 92008
May 2004
5671 Palmer Way, Suite A
Carlsbad, California 92008
(760) 929-0055
email: gallegos@aol.com
G ALLE G O S
(^Associates
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
To: John Cahill
Minicipal Projects Manager
From: Dennis Gallegos
Date: June 2,2004
Re: Data Recovery and Indexing Plan for the Carlsbad Golf Course
John:
Enclosed are two copies of the "Carlsbad Golf Course Data Recovery Plan for CA-SDI-
8694, and Indexing and Preservation Plan for CA-SDI-8303 and GA-SDI-8797 Locus C."
The Plan provides backgroimd information, research orientation and field and lab
methods to achieve the research goals. Work has started on CA-SDI-8797 Locus C
(Water Tank). I anticipate starting work at CA-SDI-8303 (target range) in approximately
3 to 4 weeks. Please call me should you have questions or comments or need additional
infonnation.
Dermis
We are sending you the U.S. Mail
enclosed, via Express Mail
X Priority Mail
U.P.S.
Federal Express
Messenger/Delivery
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION TITLE PAGE
1 DATA RECOVERY PLAN FOR CA-SDI 8694, AND INDEXING
AND PRESERVATION PLAN FOR CA-SDI-8303 AND
CA-SDI-8797 LOCUS C 1-1
1.1 Introduction 1-1
1.2 Background and Significance 1-7
1.3 Environmental Setting 1-9
1.4 Background - Prehistory 1-9
1.4.1 Early Period/Archaic 1-9
1.4.2 Late Period Ml
1.4.3 Protohistoric Period 1-12
1.5 Research Questions 1-12
1.6 Research Priorities 1-23
1.7 Data Needs 1-23
1.8 Methods 1-24
1.9 Field Strategy 1-24
1.10 Laboratory Methods 1-25
1.10.1 Lithic Analysis 1-26
1.10.2 Faunal Analysis 1-30
1.10.3 Ceramic Analysis 1-32
1.10.4 Microbotanical, Macrobotanical, and Protein 1-34
Residue Studies
1.10.5 Obsidian Source Identification and Hydration 1-35
Rim Measurements
1.10.6 Radiocarbon Dating Analysis 1-35
1.11 Report Preparation 1-35
1.12 Native American Participation 1-36
1.12.1 Provisions for Encountering Human Remains 1-36
1.13 Personnel 1-37
1.14 Curation 1-37
1.15 Report Submittal 1-37
1.16 Monitoring 1-37
2 BIBLIOGRAPHY 2-1
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE TITLE
1 Regional Location of Project
2 Cultural Resources Shown on USGS Map
3a Significant Site Area for CA-SDI-8303
3b Significant Site Area for CA-SDI-8694
3c Significant Site Areas for CA-SDI-8797
PAGE
1-2
1-3
1-4
1-5
1-6
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE TITLE
1-1 Summary of Cultural Material from CA-SDI-8303, CA-SDI-8694,
and CA-SDI-8797
PAGE
1-8
SECTION 1
DATA RECOVERY PLAN FOR CA-SDI-8694, AND INDEXING
AND PRESERVATION PLAN FOR CA-SDI-8303 AND CA-SDI-8797 Locus C
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Data Recovery Plan (Plan) for prehistoric site CA-SDI-8694, and Indexing and Preservation Plan
for CA-SDI-8303 and CA-SDI-8797 Locus C was prepared by Gallegos & Associates to adequately
address mitigation of impacts through both data recovery for CA-SDI-8694 and avoidance and
capping for CA-SDI-8303 and CA-SDI-8797 Locus C. Prior to avoidance and capping, both CA-
SDI-8303 and CA-SDI-8797 Locus C will be excavated using six 1x1-m units per site to provide an
index sample representing the deposit being capped and preserved.
The Plan was prepared to provide an overview of San Diego County cultural resources, specific
information for sites CA-SDI-8797, CA-SDI-8303 and CA-SDI-8797 Locus C, research orientation,
field and laboratory methods, report preparation. Native American consultation, personnel, curation of
artifacts and ecofacts, and monitoring during construction.
The portion of sites CA-SDI-8303 and CA-SDI-8797 Locus C, within the Open Space Easement, will
be capped using one inch of clean sand and a minimum of 12 inches of clean fill. Shallow-rooted
plants will be used in the Open Space Easement. Water hnes and other utilities will need to be placed
outside of the Open Space Easement or within the fiU soil. As CA-SDI-8694 cannot be avoided of
development impacts, mitigation of impacts will be achieved through the completion of a data recovery
program.
Sites CA-SDI-8303, CA-SDI-8694, and CA-SDI-8797 Locus C are located within the City of
Carlsbad (Figures 1 and 2). The primary site area for CA-SDI-8694 is approximately 3,000 sq m
(Figure 3b). The Plan provides for a 2 to 5 percent phased data recovery program for the 3,000 sq m
site. This program includes excavation of Ixl-m sample units, block excavations, controlled backhoe
excavation, feature excavation, analysis of artifacts and ecofacts, and radiocarbon dating. The research
orientation for this study will focus on chronology, hthic technology, settlement and subsistence
strategy, environmental setting, and trade and travel. The index sample wiU include the excavation of
six Ixl-m units at both CA-SDI-8303 and CA-SDI-8797 Locus C (Figures 3a and 3c). All artifacts
and ecofacts recovered wiU be washed, analyzed, and special studies will be completed as needed.
Special studies may include hthic, shell, bone, radiocarbon dating, obsidian sourcing, ceramic and
residue analyses.
May 2004 1-1
Scale: 7"= 10 miles
Mexico
Gallegos & Associates
Regional Location of Project FIGURE
1
0'14'
4MILS
San Luis Rey and Encinitas 7.5' USGS Maps
13V,'
SCALE 1:24000
0
'240 MILS 1000 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 FEET
1 KILOMETER
Gallegos & Associates
Site CA-SDI-8303, CA-SDI-8694, and CA-SDI-8797
Shown on USGS Map
FIGURE
2
O = Negative STP
• = Positive STP
• = Positive 1x1
• = Negative Ix
Gallegos & Associates
Significant Site Area for CA-SDI-8303 FIGURE
3a
Gallegos & Associates
Significant Site Area for CA-SDI-8694 FIGURE
3b
Gallegos & Associates
I I = Significant Areas
Significant Site Area for CA-SDI-8797 FIGURE
3c
Upon review and acceptance of the Plan, fieldwork will commence and will necessitate approximately
three to four months, followed by artifact cataloguing, analysis, special studies, and the report of
finding.
1.2 BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE
CA-SDI-8303
Testing included the excavation of 51 STPs and five Ixl-m units. This work produced over 1,108
artifacts that included a wide range of tools, beads, an abalone fish hook, ceramics, arrow points, and
milling tools (Table 1-1). In addition, 13,730.85 g of shell and 122.75 g of bone were collected and
analyzed. Site CA-SDI-8303 is a major village site, occupied circa 760 to 1,080 years ago. The shell
reflects both lagoon and open coast shell exploitation. Obsidian was also recovered and sourced to
Obsidian Butte in the Imperial Valley. Other trade material included chert, wonderstone, siltstone, and
Piedra de Lumbre chert. The high number of artifacts and ecofacts recovered, the diversity of
artifactual and ecofactual material, and the potential of this site to address important research questions
provide sufficient information to identify CA-SDI-8303 as a significant culttiral resource under
CEQA and federal criteria. Site CA-SDI-8303 will be index sampled, capped and avoided of impacts.
CA-SDI-8694
Testing for CA-SDI-8694 included the excavation of 18 STPs and two 1x1-m units (Gallegos et al.
1999). This work produced 584 artifacts, 3,477 g of shell, and 33.8 g of bone (Table 1-1). Given the
extensive and diverse artifact assemblage present to address research questions, this habitation site,
occupied circa 5,160 years ago, is identified as significant under CEQA, Section 15064.5 (3) criteria
D, and is recommended as eligible to the National Register of Historic Places. As CA-SDI-8694 wiU
be directiy impacted by the proposed development, mitigation of impacts will be achieved through the
completion of a data recovery program.
CA-SDI-8797
Site CA-SDI-8797 was initially recorded by Malcohn Rogers as W-116. This site was tested and
identified as significant under City of Carlsbad and CEQA criteria (Gallegos and Kyle 1992, Gallegos
and Harris 1995, and Gallegos et al. 1999). Testing conducted at Locus A by Gallegos and Kyle
(1992) identified a cultural deposit to 80 cm that included the recovery of debitage, cores, ground
stone, a scraper, ceramics, a biface fragment, a shell bead, an otohth, modified bone and shell (Table 1-
1). Testing of site CA-SDI-8797 Locus B (southem portion of CA-SDI-8797) included collection of
surface artifacts, and excavation of 21 shovel test pits (STPs). Locus B contained milhng tools, bone
tools, a shell bead, bone and shell, and depth of deposit to approximately 100 cm. The test excavation
May 2004 1-7
Table I-l
Carlsbad Golf Course
Summary of Cultural Material from CA-SDI-8303, CA-SDI-8694, CA-SDI-8797
Cultural Material CA-SDI-8303 CA-SDI-8694 CA-SDI-8797 Total
Habitation Habitation Habitation
5 Units 2 Units 8 Units
and 51 STPs and 44 STPs
Debitage 972 518 2270 3760
Projectile Point 7 --7
Biface 2 -6 8
Utilized Flake Tool 9 3 26 38
Core/Cobble Tool 6 1 1 8
Core 1 3 21 25
Scraper --11 11
Schist Fragment 1 --1
Bo-wl/Mortar 2 -3 5
Ground Stone 6 2 17 25
Metate 2 -12 14
Mano 4 -31 35
Mano/Pestle ---0
Pestle --4 4
Hammer Stone --16 16
Shell Dish --1 1
Tarring Pebble --1 1
Stone Cylinder ---0
Polished Pebble ---0
Bone Awl 1 --1
Worked Bone --10 10
Ochre Stone 1 --1
Shell Bead 6 -4 10
Bone Bead --1 1
Ceramic 86 1 26 113
Fish Hook 1 --1
Otolith 1 --1
Milling Feature ----
Charcoal Present ---
Shell* 13730.85 2992.40 19732.50 36455.75
Bone* 122.75 32.40 172.20 327.35
C-14 Date (CRYBP)*** 1080 5160 4870
850 5110
760 5190
Total** 1108 528 2461
*Weight in grams
**Does not include charcoal, bone or shell
***CRYBP = Corrected Radiocarbon Years Before Present
of CA-SDI-8797 Locus C identified a rich cultural deposit and the presence of a human burial
(Gallegos et. al 1999). This portion of CA-SDI-8797 was radiocarbon dated to circa 5,000 years ago.
Locus C is within the Carlsbad Golf Course development area and will be index sampled, capped and
avoided of impacts.
1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
The proposed Carlsbad Golf Course is situated west of Interstate 5 and south of Agua Hedionda
Lagoon in north coastal San Diego County. The lagoon habitat provided rich and varied food
resources for prehistoric populations. These resources included shellfish, fish, and plants, as well as,
small, medium, and large mammals.
The vegetation for the Carlsbad Golf Course includes cultivated lands and native vegetation of coastal
sage scrub. The ridgelines are Pleistocene marine terraces tiiat contain cobbles. Local cobbles were
used to make tools, manos, and firehearths. Soil within the study area is sandy loam underiain by a
sandstone deposit.
1.4 BACKGROUND - PREHISTORY
The body of current research of prehistoric occupation in San Diego County recognizes the existence
of at least two major cultiiral tiaditions, discussed here as Early Period/Archaic and Late Period, based
upon general economic trends and material culture. Within San Diego County, tiie Early Period spans
from roughly 9,500 to 1,300 years ago, while the Late Period includes from 1,300 years ago to historic
contact. The Historic Period covers the time from Spanish contact to present.
1.4.1 Early Period/Archaic
The Early Period/Archaic, for this discussion, includes the San Dieguito and La Jolla complexes,
which are poorly defined, as are the interrelationship between contemporaneous inland, desert, and
coastal assemblages (Gallegos 1987). Initially beUeved to represent big game hunters, tiie San
Dieguito are better typified as a hunting and gathering society. These people had a relatively diverse
and non-specialized economy in which relatively mobile bands accessed and used a wide range of
plant, animal, and hthic resources. Movement of early groups into San Diego County may have been
spurred by the gradual desiccation of tiie vast pluvial lake system that dominated inland basins and
valleys during the last altithermal period. This hypothesis is supported by tiie similarity between
Great Basin assemblages and those of early Holocene Archaic sites in San Diego County. Several
May 2004 1-9
researchers have recogmzed the regional similarity of artifacts and grouped these contemporaneous
complexes under the nomenclature of either the Westem Pluvial Lakes Tradition or the Westem Litiiic
Co-Tradition (Rogers 1939; Warren 1967; Davis et al. 1969; Bedwell 1970; and Moratto 1984).
The origin of coastal populations and subsequent interaction between the coastal population and Great
Basin desert groups is a subject of some debate (Gallegos 1987). Whatever their origin, the first
occupants immediately exploited the coastal and inland resources of plants, animals, shellfish, and fish
(Moriarty 1967; Kaldenberg 1982; Gallegos 1991; and Kyle et al. 1998).
The development of a generaUzed economic system indicates that the San Dieguito and related groups
can be placed within the general Archaic pattem. Archaic cultures occur witiiin North America at
slightiy different times in different areas, but are generally correlated witii local economic
specialization growing out ofthe earUer Paleo-Indian Tradition (WiUig et al. 1988). Archaic cultures
are often represented by more diverse artifact assemblages and more complex regional variation than
occur in Paleo-Indian tiaditions. This is generally thought to have resulted from tiie gradual shift
away from a herd-based hunting focus to a more diverse and area-specific economy.
The earhest Archaic sites are found near coastal lagoons and river valleys of San Diego County.
These sites arc the Harris site (CA-SDI-149), the Agua Hedionda sites (CA-SDI-210/ UCLJ-M-15
and CA-SDI-10695), Rancho Park North (CA-SDI-4392/SDM-W-49), and Remington Hills (CA-
SDI-11069), all dating from 9,500 to 8,500 years B.P. The northem San Diego County coastal
lagoons supported large populations circa 6,000 years ago, as shown by tiie numerous radiocarbon-
dated sites adjacent to these lagoons. After 3,000 years ago, tiiere is a general absence of
archaeological sites in north San Diego County to circa 1,500 years ago. This reduction in the
number of archaeological sites can be attiibuted to the siltation of coastal lagoons and the depletion of
shellfish and other lagoon resources (Warren and Pavesic 1963; Miller 1966; Gallegos 1985).
Archaeological sites dated to circa 2,000 years ago are found closer to San Diego Bay, where shellfish
were still abundant, and may well represent what can be. considered the end of tiie La Jolla Complex
(Gallegos and Kyle 1988).
The La Jolla and Pauma complexes, which are identified as following tiie San Dieguito Complex, may
simply represent seasonal or geographic variations of the somewhat older and more general San
Dieguito Complex. Inland La Jolla occupation sites have been reported in tiansverse valleys and
sheltered canyons (Tme 1959; Warren et al. 1961; Meighan 1954). These non-coastal sites were
termed "Pauma Complex" by Tme (1959), Warren (1961), and Meighan (1954). Pauma Complex
sites by definition have a predominance of grinding implements such as manos and metates, a lack of
May 2004 1-10
shellfish remains, greater tool variety, a greater expression of a more sedentary occupation, and a
stronger emphasis on both gathering and hunting (Tme 1959; Warren et al. 1961; Meighan 1954).
Archaic site types from 9,500 to 1,300 years ago within San Diego County include coastal habitation
sites, inland hunting and milUng camps, and quarry sites. Material cultural assemblages during this
long period are remarkably similar in many respects. These deposits may well represent a process of
relative terrestrial economic stability and presumably slow culttiral change. Though various culture
traits developed or disappeared during the span of 9,500 to 1,300 years ago, tiiere is a clear pattem of
cultural continuity during tiiis period.
1.4.2 Late Period/Late Prehistoric
During the Late Period (circa 1,300 years ago to historic contact), a material culture pattem similar to
tiiat of historic Native Americans became apparent in the archaeological record. The economic pattem
during this period appears to be one of more intensive and efficient exploitation of local resources.
The prosperity of these highly-refined economic pattems is well evidenced by tiie numerous
Kumeyaay/Diegueiio and Luiseiio habitation sites scattered throughout San Diego County. This
increase in Late Period site density probably reflects better preservation of tiie more recent
archaeological record and a gradual population increase within tiie region. Artifacts and cultiiral
pattems reflecting this Late Period pattem include small projectile points, pottery, tiie estabhshment of
semi-permanent or permanent seasonal village sites, tiie proliferation of acom milhng sites in tiie
uplands, the appearance of obsidian from Obsidian Butte, and interment by cremation.
Many of tiie Late Period culttiral pattems in southem Cahfomia were shared witii groups along tiie
eastem periphery of the region. Even in the most recent periods, tiie Native Americans of southem
Cahfomia incorporated many elements of tiieu- neighbors' cultures into tiieu: own culttire. This
transferring and melding of cultural traits between neighboring groups makes it difficult to identify
associations of archaeological deposits witii particular ethnographically-known cultures. This is
particularly tme of groups within San Diego County. Although sigmficant differences exist between
Luiseiio and Kumeyaay/Diegueiio culttures, including linguistic stock, the long interaction of these
groups during the Late Period resulted in the exchange of many social pattems. Archaeologists must
rely heavily on ethnographic accounts of group boundaries as recorded during the historic period,
although it is not known how long these boundaries have been in place or the validity of these
boundaries as reported and recorded. Florence Shipek Ph.D. (1993) identifies tiie northem and
southem Kumeyaay/Diegueno tribal boundary as:
May 2004 1-11
In 1769, Kumeyaay national territory starting at the coast about 100
miles south of the Mexican border (below Santo Tomas), thence north
to the coast at the drainage divide south of the San Luis Rey River
including its tributaries. Using tiie U.S. Geological Survey
topographic maps, the boundary with the Luiseno then follows that
divide inland. The boundary continues on the divide separating Valley
Center from Escondido and then up along Bear Ridge to the 2240
contour Une and then nortii across the divide between Valley Center and
Woods Valley up to the 1880 Ft. peak, then curving around east along
tiie divide above Woods Valley...
The project area falls near the boundary between the Kumeyaay/Diegueno and Luiseiio. As a result of
contact with Spanish, Mexican, and American settlers. Native American populations were decimated by
resettlement and disease. Presentiy, Native Americans are found throughout San Diego County,
especiaUy within the 18 San Diego County reservations.
Further readings on Kumeyaay/Diegueiio and Luiseiio Native Americans include: Almstedt (1974);
Barrows (1900); Bean (1972); Bean and Saubel (1972); Burms (1967); Cuero (1968); Dmcker
(1937); Dubois (1908); Gifford (1918); Harrington (1978); Hedges (1986); Heizer and Almquist
(1971); Heizer and Whipple (1957); Hooper (1920); KeneaUy (1965); Kroeber (1925); Langdon
(1970); Luomala (1978); Merrill (1973); Pourade (1960); Priestley (1937); Robinson (1969); Rudkin
(1956); Shipek (1977, 1978, 1980, 1986 a and b, 1987, 1988, 1989 a and b, 1991, 1993); Sparkman
(1908); Spicer (1962); Spier (1923); Stiong (1929); Tibesar (1955); UnderhiU (1941); White (1963);
Wolcott (1929); and Woodward (1934).
1.4.3 Protohistoric Period
The Hispanic intioision and colonization (1769-1822) within Native American southem CaUfornia,
affected the coastal ttibes and peoples Uving in well-tt-aveled river valleys. The Mexican Period (1822-
1848) saw continued displacement of tiie native populations by expansion of tiie land grant program
and development of extensive ranchos. The gold msh of 1849 and tiie concomitant granting of
Cahfomia's statehood in 1850, combined witii an influx of Anglo-Americans, resulted in a rapid
displacement of tiie Native Americans, and tiie deterioration of thek culttire and lifeways (Bancroft
1886; Kroeber 1925).
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research orientation, developed for tiie data recovery plan, employs regionaUy and locally specific
questions, and identifies data needs to approach tiiese questions. A wide range of research questions
May 2004 1-12
or topics are possible for site CA-SDI-8694, however, five research domains were selected on tiie
basis of previous work, data available to address these questions, and overall contribution to the
archaeological record. The specific research questions focus on chronology, lithic technology,
settiement and subsistence stt-ategy, and tt-ade and travel. These research topics were used to guide the
study, and to determine the sample size necessary to provide sufficient materials to address these
research questions posed. As sites CA-SDI-8303 and CA-SDI-8797 Locus C wiU be index sampled
using six Ixl-m units per site, these sites will address research questions. However, given the smaller
sample size, these sites will not produce sufficient data to answer the posed research questions.
A. Chronology
What was the period(s) of use and/or occupation for site CA-SDI-8694?
Determining tiie period of occupation of a site or a region can be accomplished by tiie use of
radiocarbon dating and by relative dating. Radiocarbon dating depends on the retrieval of materials
(i.e., bone, sheU, charcoal) amenable to scientific analysis. Radiocarbon dates for north San Diego
County range from roughly 9,000 years ago to historic contact.
The altemate dating metiiod, relative dating, is based on the recovery of specific artifacts tiiat are
temporally diagnostic. Temporally-diagnostic artifacts recovered in context witii associated
radiocarbon dates include atiati-dart points, arrow points, and ceramics. Obsidian sourcing and
hydration rind measurements are also relative-dating measures.
In order to address the research questions posed, temporal placement of tiie site is necessary.
Previous work at CA-SDI-8694 identified an Early Period component radiocarbon dated to 5,160
years ago.
Data Needs
SheU, bone, and charcoal are present, and wiU be submitted for radiocarbon dating. Relative dating is
also possible using point types, the presence of ceramics, and analysis of obsidian. The testing
program produced no bifaces and only one ceramic for relative dating. Obsidian, ttaded from distant
sources, may also be relatively dated using hydration rates since obsidian absorbs water at slow and
somewhat constant rates. Obsidian from sources such as Obsidian Butte in the Imperial Valley was
available during tiie late Holocene, while obsidian from tiie Coso Range of the cential valley was
available throughout the Holocene. SheU species preference or availabihty may also be used to place
May 2004 1-13
sites within a relative order. For example, marine shell can be identified by species to determine shell
habitat and along witii radiocarbon dates, can be used to identify envuronmental setting and change
within the Holocene.
Methods of Collection
Charcoal samples wiU be collected from inside or below fire hearth features, whenever possible.
Charcoal wiU be removed witii a clean ttowel and placed in clean resealable plastic bags. Small
fragments of charcoal recovered from inside the hearth wUl be wrapped in clean aluminum foil and
tiien placed in a clean resealable plastic bag. Bone and shell wiU be rettieved during the subsurface
excavation program. Analysis methods for bone and shell are discussed in Sections 1.10.2.
AU samples wUl be clearly labeled witii provenience (i.e., site, unit, level, date, person collecting tiie
sample, associated feattire), date of recovery, and material (i.e., sheU, bone, charcoal). Obsidian wiU be
separated from otiier debitage, wrapped in paper or cotton to prevent edge damage, and labeled
appropriately. Obsidian analysis is discussed in Section 1.10.5. If diagnostic artifacts are recovered
during coUection of surface artifacts or during excavation, these artifacts wiU be placed in resealable
plastic bags and labeled as described in Section 1.10.
If feattires are identified during 1x1-m unit excavation, units wiU be expanded so tiiat a sample of the
featiire is exposed. The feature(s) will then be mapped, photographed, and cultural material recovered.
Methods are discussed in Sections 1.8 and 1.9.
Expectations
On the basis of the test report (Gallegos et al. 1999), large quantities of sheU witii some bone were
identified. Subsurface excavation should provide sheU, bone, charcoal, or cultural material for
radiocarbon dating and/or relative dating, tiiereby placing these sites witiun tiie broader context of tiie
north San Diego County archaeological record.
B. Lithic Technology
What technological trajectories were used by the prehistoric inhabitants? Which lithic
reduction strategies were in use and when?
Several flake-tool reduction stiategies have been identified for tiie southem coastal Califomia region.
May 2004 1-14
These include biface reduction, spUt-cobble core reduction, small blade core reduction, bipolar core
reduction, and cobble reduction. The decision to use one or the other of these techniques was
dependent on several factors, but the most important factors were the type of material tiiat was worked,
the morphology of the parent material, and the intended tool. Some Utiiic materials, such as Monterey
chert and Piedra de Lumbre chert, are more easily worked, and witii heat tieatment become some of the
best knappable material in tiie westem United States. Problems exist, however, in the form of the
material in its raw state. Piedra de Lumbre chert generaUy occurs in small pieces, thus it was used
more extensively in the late Holocene for smaU arrow points (Pigniolo 1992). This material has been
recovered from a site dating to 8,000 years ago (Gallegos 1991). Monterey chert occurs in small
cobbles and in layers. For small cobbles, bipolar reduction would be the most efficient method of
producing usable flakes. For tiie layered Monterey chert, biface reduction was the most expedient
method of producing tools, as tiie layers were akeady tiiin and only tiie outer perimeter needed to be
worked (Cooley 1982). Other chert sources in San Diego County need to be identified and tiie
material chemically characterized.
Large biface production and reduction requires pieces of material large enough to be reduced and
homogenous enough to produce a workable item. The Santiago Peak volcanics and tiie Bedford
Canyon metasediments found in San Diego County have been used extensively for the production of
large tools (adzes, scrapers, scraper planes, cores, hammer stones) and bifaces (Schroth and Renniken
1997). The use of quarry material from these formations may be an early to middle Holocene marker,
as the larger spear and dart points would have necessitated the use of larger blocks of parent material.
Cobble/core reduction includes numerous techniques such as the pyramidal-shaped split cobble/core
(used to produce thick contiacting flakes for flake tools), teshoe flakes for large flake tools, and
cobble/core tools where tiie parent material ratiier than tiie removed flakes became tiie tool. The
cobble layers along the coast would have provided material for tiiese reduction sequences.
Ground stone artifacts (i.e., manos, metates, and pesties) occur on sites tiiroughout San Diego County
and especially at habitation sites, milUng stations, and temporary camps. To date, Uttle analysis has
been conducted regarding ground stone manufacttire and use or change of use through time in San
Diego County. An analysis of debitage and lithic tools from CA-SDI-10148, located south of the San
Diego River near Santee, was completed by Flenniken (Kyle and Gallegos 1993). Flenniken
determined that all of the flaked core/cobble tools recovered from this site were used for ground stone
manufactiire and rejuvenation, and that the debitage was the result of both tool manufacttire and use of
tiie tools for rejuvenating ground stone grinding surfaces. Analysis of debitage and tools from
habitation sites can provide information regarding manufacttire, use, and rejuvenation of ground stone.
May 2004 1-15
Changes in resources and task-specific uses should be analyzed to determine if ground stone tools
were designed for specific tasks and if technological changes occurred through time as cUmate and
resources changed.
Assuming that sufficient quantities of lithic materials wiU be recovered, then tiie following research
hypotheses will be addressed.
HO: Specific litiiic reduction techniques have changed through time, with large biface reduction and
steep-edged unifacial tools (SEUT) predominating during the early and middle Holocene, and small
biface reduction during the late Holocene.
HI: All reduction sti-ategies were equally important throughout tiie Holocene.
Study Topics
(a) Which technological reduction sttrategies are present based on the debitage at tiie site?
(b) Which reduction strategies were used to produce which tools? Were these stiategies
the same of different?
(c) If ground stone tools are present, are the cobble materials local or non-local?
(d) Is there evidence that ground stone tools were produced at tiie site, or were they
produced elsewhere and then carried to the site? -
(e) How do technologies and stages of tool reduction relate to site function and tools
recovered at the sites?
Data Needs
A. CoUection of a sample of cores and debitage.
B. Detailed analysis of cores and debitage for technological attiibutes and reduction sequence
classification.
A. Identification of the technological attiibutes and reduction sequences used to produce tiie
tools.
Methods of Collection
Debitage, tools, and ground stone wiU be recovered during hand excavation of the Ixl-m units.
The units wiU be excavated in 10-cm levels and the soil screened using 1/8-inch hardware
mesh. Excavators wUl be aware tiiat granitic, sandstone, and other coarse-grained Utiiic
May 2004 1-16
material debitage are possible and should be collected where ground stone implements are
manufactured, finished, or used. Field methods are discussed in Section 1.9. Laboratory
methods are discussed in Section 1.10 and lithic analysis in Section 1.10.1.
Expectations
Given the site type (habitation), sufficient quantities of debitage, flaked Utiiic tools, and ground stone
wiU be recovered to identify manufacturing techniques. Given tiie 518 debitage, 4 cores and
core/cobble tools, 3 flake tools, and 2 ground stone tools recovered from the two sample units, tiie
number of debitage projected for the 2% sample are 15,540 debitage, 120 cores and core/cobble tools,
90 flake tools, and 60 ground stone tools. Given tiiat sufficient materials are avaUable, tiien tiie
identification wiU be correlated witii technological repUcative studies as part of tiie data recovery
program. In this region, use of locally available quarry materials (fine-grained metavolcanic), and local
cobbles and granitic materials are expected to dominate the assemblage for flaked tools, core/cobble
tools, and for ground stone tools.
C. Settlement and Subsistence
What settlement and subsistence patterns can be identified, and have these patterns changed
over time? Did the collection of shellfish change with time? What influenced the changes:
environment, populations, technologies, or combinations of these factors?
The most pronounced environmental change for coastal southem Califomia is the rise in sea level tiiat
occurred during the early to middle Holocene, and the flooding of coastal valleys and the creation of
lagoons tiiat are associated with this event. Evidence of environmental change in lagoons is based on
analysis of core samples combined with radiocarbon dates and radiocarbon dated shellfish samples
taken from prehistoric sites near lagoons. Environmental studies using shellfish to explain site
patterning and environmental change include Miller (1966), Warren et al. (1961), Warren and Pavesic
(1963), BuU and Kaldenberg (1976), Gallegos (1985), and Masters (1988).
Circa 3,500 years ago, sea level stabiUzed, causing an increase in siltation processes that eventiially
caused degradation of the lagoons during tiie late Holocene. In contrast to San Diego Bay, tiie
environmental change in northem San Diego County was more complex. San Diego Bay formed in
the early Holocene and stayed open to the ocean throughout tiie Holocene (Gallegos and Kyle 1988).
Thus, some prehistoric sites may reflect a changing environment and the loss of lagoonal shellfish and
May 2004 1-17
fish, whereas other sites dependent on San Diego Bay may not reflect a change in shellfish species
and type of shellfish and/or absence of shellfish.
Large quantities of shellfish are generally not recovered from inland prehistoric sites. This relative
lack of shellfish remains may be the result of poor preservation. Changes in use of shellfish and fish
through time may, therefore, be difficult to determine. Environmental changes have also been
documented for the coastal region, suggesting cUmatic drying and accompanying vegetation changes
taking place over the past 7,000 years (Davis 1992). Pollen studies suggest that pine frees, oak tiees,
and grassland were present during the early and middle Holocene.
The Native American occupation of soutiiem San Diego County in the 10,000 years of the Holocene
is pooriy documented. Gallegos (1987) suggested that early and middle Holocene (Early
Period/Archaic) sites identified as inland San Dieguito and Pauma Complexes and coastal La Jolla
Complex occupations were occupied by the same group on a seasonal round. Another hypothesis
suggests that Native Americans had large viUage sites occupied year-round witii Uttle change in diet
(White 1963). Tme (1970) hypothesized tiiat Late Period settiement pattems included a winter viUage
site at lower elevations and a summer viUage site in tiie mountains with occupation based on seasonal
subsistence.
Given tiiat sufficient faunal remains are recovered as a result of the data recovery program, tiien
research hypothesis listed below and study topics will be addressed:
HO: During the Holocene, the envu-onment and setting of tiie lagoon and coastal plain changed
through time. The apparent difference in faunal consumption at CA-SDI-8694 is a reflection of tiie
changing environment of the lagoon and coastal plain.
HI: During the Holocene, tiie environment and setting of tiie lagoon and coastal plain was stable,
thus changes in faunal consumption cannot be equated witii natural changes.
Studv Topics
Does site CA-SDI-8694 represent both Early Period and/or Late Period components, and can
environmental change in tiie faunal assemblage be identified?
Does site CA-SDI-8694 represent a specialized food processing locaUty or, conversely, does it
represent a campsite wherein a wide range of foods were gathered and processed?
May 2004 1-18
Data Needs
Data necessary to address the question of economic strategy includes floral and faunal remains to
permit the reconstmction of diet or dietary practices and preferences of the site occupants. The
presence of particular species of plants and animals allows for a more complete appraisal of tiie
various environmental niches exploited by the site occupants.
Methods for interpreting the data include protein residue analysis of selected artifacts to identify what
flora and faunal materials were processed at tiie site; speciation of the recovered faunal assemblage,
witii special attention to evidence of butchering or cooking; and tiie identification of species within
preferred habitats, and tiie placement of these speciated remains within tiie ecological model to
reconstmct the habitat(s) exploited by the site occupants.
On the basis of previous sttidies, pollen and phytoUth preservation may be poor and since this is a
costiy procedure, it should only be undertaken when intact subsurface levels and/or features are
present. Protein residue analysis from recovered ground stone implements and flaked tools wUl also
be necessary. It may be necessary to process relatively large numbers of ground stone and Utiiic tools
to obtain protein residue information for habitation sites.
Artifacts recovered from the site can also provide inferential information regarding subsistence
exploitation. For example, if plant material is not found, tiie presence of mortars, manos, and metates
provides evidence that flora and faunal material was processed at the site, hnmunological studies of
residues on tools from the site may provide data relating to both the use of tools and to resources
exploited.
In addition to the information gatiiered from CA-SDI-8694 to address diet and environmental setting,
CA-SDI-8694 wiU be compared to and contrasted witii sites CA-SDI-8303 and CA-SDI-8797 Locus
C. It should be noted that CA-SDI-8303 was radiocarbon dated to the Late Period and CA-SDI-8797
was radiocarbon dated to the Early Period (see Table 1-1).
Methods of Collection
Shellfish and faunal remains wiU be collected from excavated units and dry-screened soils wiU be
processed using a screen no larger tiian 1/8-inch mesh. Field methods are discussed in Section 1.9.
Care wiU be taken that shell and bone are thoroughly dry prior to storage. Standard metiiods for
coUecting soil samples for pollen and phytoUth analysis wiU be followed. This wUl include column
May 2004 1-19
soil samples (minimally 10x10 cm in size) from unit excavations with the samples removed in 10-cm
levels (100 cubic cm per sample) using a trowel cleaned witii distilled water. The samples wiU be
placed in clean resealable plastic bags with an appropriate attached label. A surface soil sample wUl
also be collected for comparative purposes. Soil samples below and adjacent to featiires wiU be
collected in the same manner: using a clean ttowel, and stored in clean resealable plastic bags. In
every case, labels wiU be attached to the outside of tiie bag and not placed inside tiie bag. Artifacts
submitted for protein residue analysis may be washed with cool water; however, soap, detergent, or
other chemicals will not be used (see Section 1.10.4).
Expectations
Inland temporary camps and milUng stations produce low amounts of faunal material and therefore do
not produce sufficient infomiation to address research questions regarding settiement and subsistence
pattems. Conttastiy, large Late Period viUage sites contain abundant faunal remains and can provide
adequate samples to address such questions. Given that the previous excavation of two Ixl-m units
produced 32.4 g of bone identified as primarily smaU mammal, it is estimated that over 972 g of bone
will be available to address settiement and subsistence pattems.
D. Trade and Travel
To what extent are trade and travel evidenced at site CA-SDI-8694? Early travelers and
ethnographers noted the presence of Native American trails and trade activities among
different cultural groups in the southern California region. The procurement of lithic
resources, such as serpentine, chalcedony, chert, jasper, obsidian, and steatite, may identify
contact with other cultural groups, as these materials were not available in the local area.
Although many other trade items were perishable, what recovered archaeological evidence
demonstrates trade and/or travel?
Several exotic Utiiic materials (i.e., obsidian, and Piedra de Lumbre chert) have been identified as bade
items. Their occurrence at San Diego County sites aids in delineating ti^vel/tiade routes. More
research with exotic material found in context wiU be necessary to determine tiie extent of tiade, what
materials were ttaded, and if tiade materials and routes changed through time. Generally, if obsidian
was present in early and middle Holocene sites in San Diego County, then it was obtained from tiie
Coso Range, located over 300 miles north, in north cential Califomia. Obsidian from late Holocene
sites is usually Obsidian Butte obsidian from tiie Imperial Valley. Obsidian was also available from
Mexico and other sources not presentiy identified.
May 2004 1-20
Other lithic materials not local to the area, but which may have come from nearby sources, include
jasper, chert, and chalcedony. These generally occur at sites as very small retouch flakes or as
finished items, suggesting tiiat the items were procured in a finished stage. Thus, they would have
been ttade items. If they had been obtained by direct procurement, then the raw material and early
stages of tool production would have been present. Sources for these materials need to be identified,
as well as sites near the sources where the material was worked in order to more fully understand tiie
tiade network involved. Neutton activation analysis has been used successfully to source these exotic
materials.
Steatite sources are present in southem San Diego County and include a fakly large quarry, tiie
Stonewall Quaixy in Rancho Cuyamaca State Park (Tme 1970). Anotiier known quarry, tiie Jacumba
Valley Quarry, is near the U.S./Mexico border, about 95 km (59 miles) from tiie Pacific Ocean (Polk
1972). Neutron activation has been used successfully to match specific steatite artifacts to specific
sources or quarries and would provide valuable information for identifying tiade/tiavel directions.
The shell that occurs in most of the sites is evidence of travel to lagoons or open coast, or tiade witii
groups occupying those regions. The closest source of shellfish is approximately 1.2 km (0.7. mile)
to the north. Did the occupants tiavel to the lagoon and/or open shore? Did tiiey obtain Olivella sp.
shell and make the spire-lopped beads or did they ttade for these decorative artifacts? Were tiie
Olivella sp. shells Pacific coast or Gulf of Califomia species?
If trade materials are recovered as a result of tiie data recovery program, research hypotheses such as
those listed below can be addressed:
HO: During the early Holocene, tiade was long-distance, possible through tiading partners in a down-
the-line pattem. Obsidian was ttaded in and came from primarily the Coso Range in east-centtal
Califomia (Hughes and Tme 1985). During tiie middle Holocene, ttade consisted of mutual bartering
with near neighbors, witii Piedra de Lumbre chert from northem coastal San Diego a preferred Utiiic
import. During the late Holocene, tiade was practically non-existent and a few ttade materials, such as
obsidian from Obsidian Butte, are present in tiie artifactual assemblages.
HI: Trading for preferred Utiiic material was a common practice throughout tiie Holocene witii no
change in direction or distance.
May 2004 1-21
Study Topics
(a) Is there evidence of ttading contact or travel?
(b) What was the nature of cultiiral contact—continuous, sporadic, or limited?
(c) What are the inferred routes of trade?
(d) What economic needs, if any, were met through contact and tiade?
Data Needs
(a) Recovery and analysis of an adequate sample of cultiiral material that includes ttade goods.
These items include obsidian, chert, steatite, chalcedony, desert lithic material, and beads.
A. Identification of the source of tiade items.
Methods of Collection
Both surface collection and subsurface excavation wUl be conducted, as weU as tiie 2% sample data
recovery excavation. To recover ttade items, 1x1-m units wiU be excavated and aU soil wUl be dry-
screened through hardware mesh tiiat is not larger tiian 1/8 inch in size. Special studies wiU include
obsidian sourcing, identification of litiiic materials, and shellfish speciation (see Sections 1.10.1,
1.10.2 and 1.10.5). As local materials were recovered as a result of tiie test program, ttade items are
not anticipated.
Expectations
Obsidian and other exotic lithic material may be recovered in very smaU quantities from CA-SDI-
8694. It should be noted that only four of the 518 debitage collected during the testing program were
of non-local material. Shell has been identified in both habitation sites and temporary camps in tiie
region. Shell can be sourced to general location (i.e., lagoon or rocky shore) and to trade (i.e., Olivella
sp. shell from the Gulf of CaUfornia as opposed to the local Cahfomia coast). The range of materials
recovered during the testing program at CA-SDI-8694 are: quartzite, metasedunent, volcanic,
metavolcanic, quartz, and cryptocrystalUne (chert and chalcedony).
May 2004 1-22
Also, it should be noted that ceramics may be an important tool to define cultural boundaries and the
presence or absence of ttade/ttavel. Beginning on the west, the boundary for the Kumeyaay/Diegueno
and Luiseno is identified as between Agua Hedionda Lagoon and Batiquitos Lagoon and extends to
just south of Escondido, and continues to the northeast to the Cupefio territory (Kroeber 1925).
Recent work, as found in tiie Oceanside to Escondido report by Guerrero et al. (2001), identifies
ceramic sourcing as having the potential to identify Late Period sites to Kumeyaay/Diegueiio or
Luiseiio occupation. A minimum of 30 ceramic fragments is required for a Luiseno site, as only one
pottery type is usually recovered. The two Ixl-m units excavated produced one ceramic. Given tiie
excavation of a 2% sample, a minimum of 30 ceramic fragments should provide a sufficient sample to
source the ceramics/clays and therefore identify the site as Kumeyaay/Diegueiio or Luiseiio. This
work will also add to tiie database of boundary definition as presented by Guerrero at the 2001 SCA
Southem Califomia data-sharing meeting.
On the local level it should be noted that chronology, diet, and ttade and ttavel are identified as County
of San Diego Significant Research Questions.
1.6 RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Many of the research questions overiap, as they address environmental setting and prehistoric
occupation. Our priorities for this study are: chronology, Utiiic technology, settiement and subsistence
sttategy, environmental setting, and ttade and ttavel.
1.7 DATA NEEDS
Site CA-SDI-8694 contains a range of artifacts and ecofacts tiiat include: flaked Utiiic tools, debitage,
cores, ground stone, shell and bone to address tiie research questions posed. If non-local artifacts
such as obsidian and chert are recovered, then these wiU be used to address tiie question of ttade and
ttavel. The presence of shell and charcoal wUl be valuable in providing material for dating units and
levels in association witii diagnostic tools or features. The dating of these artifacts and features wUI
greatiy assist in addressing questions conceming chronology and settlement pattem. Faunal remains
(i.e., sheU, fish bone, and mammal bone) wUl be coUected, speciated, and weighed to provide data to
address both diet and seasonality. Artifacts and features wiU be analyzed witii respect to chronology.
Shellfish wiU be analyzed to identify range and quantity of species, as weU as paleoenvironmental
lagoon shellfish habitat. This analysis wiU assist in understanding envttonmental setting and site
function.
May 2004 1-23
1.8 METHODS
The data required to address the research questions posed include a broad specttaim of cultural
material. The testing program demonstrated that at least two periods of occupation can be
investigated. The kinds of data necessary to approach these questions include a range of artifacts and
ecofacts.
To address tiie research questions posed, a number of diagnostic tools, shell samples and hearth
features, need to be recovered and analyzed, and where shell and other radiocarbon materials are
present, dating wiU be conducted. Previous work at CA-SDI-8694 demonsttates the presence of a
variety of faunal remains including shellfish, fish and small to large mammals, and milling tools.
Cores, tools, and debitage are also present to provide tiie information necessary to address questions
of material preference and tool technology.
1.9 FIELD STRATEGY
The field strategy presented below is consistent witii the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation's
Ideal Data Recovery Program. This Data Recovery Program provides mitigation of proposed impacts
to prehistoric site CA-SDI-8694. The program wiU consist of a 2 to 5 percent hand and mechanical
excavation program to be completed in three phases. Phase I wiU consist of a one percent random,
hand-excavated sample of the 3,000 sq m site. In all, the Phase I excavation wiU equal 30 Ixl-m units.
Phase n, one percent excavation, will be based on Phase I random sampling results and wiU focus on
features and activity areas. Upon completion of Phases I and n, backhoe tienching wiU be used to
locate, excavate, and document additional prehistoric features and activity areas. In aU, a total of 60
Ixl-m units will be excavated as a result of Phases I and n data recovery program for CA-SDI-8694.
For the index sample program for CA-SDI-8303 and CA-SDI-8797 Locus C, a total of six Ixl-m
units wiU be excavated at each site. AU features wiU be 50 to 100 percent exposed through hand
excavation, and documented through photographs and illustrations. Block unit excavations (i.e., 2x2-
m or 4x4-m) will be placed in areas with features and associated artifacts to expose intact Uving areas.
AU of tiie Ixl-m units wiU be excavated by hand in 10-cm levels. The soil wiU be dry-screened
through 1/8-inch mesh hardware clotii, and aU of the material collected from each level wiU be sorted
and placed in plastic bags. Each bag will be marked with: tiie tiinomial site number, tiie unit
coordinate designation from tiie site datum in meters (i.e., 15S/27E), date, and names of unit crew
members. A field form recording changes in soil, and the types and quantities of materials collected
May 2004 1-24
wiU be completed for each level of each unit. Each 10-cm level wUl be thoroughly examined for
artifacts and plant and animal remains.
After features are located, they wiU be manually excavated, photographed and illusttated. If charcoal
or shell is available, then radiocarbon dating wiU be conducted. Soil from select hearths may be
floated for macro flora and fauna remains. Features wiU be compared to and contrasted with otiier
features from the Agua Hedionda Lagoon region and San Diego County in general, and artifacts and
ecofacts in association with features will be used to address the research questions.
The size of area excavated for each feattire will vary depending on tiie type of feature. For example, a
30x30-cm fire hearth may be completely exposed using a Ixl-m unit, or a hearth may require tiie
excavation of a 2x2-m block exposure. The kinds of features anticipated within this type of site
usually consist of hearths, concentiations of rock, butchering areas, and house floors/activity areas.
Soil samples wiU be taken from featiires, but only one from each type of feature may be floated for
rettieval of ecofacts. This measure wiU provide comparative data for defining the range of activities
taking place at each type of feature and will serve to identify feature use.
It is expected tiiat fire hearths will yield charcoal, bumed bone, and possibly bumed or charred seeds.
Soil samples from activity areas wUl be taken on an as-need basis immediately adjacent to, or under
ground stone artifacts (i.e., whole or large fragments of metates). Flotation from soil samples should
consist predominantiy of seeds. The flotation of soil samples from features will aid in identifying past
activities and the function of these features.
1.10 LABORATORY METHODS
Gallegos & Associates' standard system of cleaning, cataloging, and analyzing cultural remains wiU be
used for artifacts recovered during this study. These procedures include cleaning and separating
artifacts and ecofacts by material class for each unit level prior to cataloging. Each item, or group of
items, wiU be counted, weighed and/or measured, and given a consecutive catalogue number marked
directly on tiie artifact or on an attached label. Additionally, each item wiU be analyzed for specific
characteristics pecuUar to each material class. AU cataloged items wiU be divided into typological
categories and placed within appropriately labeled boxes for interim storage at Gallegos & Associates'
cultural resource laboratory.
AU artifacts and ecofacts collected wUl be tteated using accepted and appropriate archaeological
procedures. Initial laboratory work wiU include washing and/or bmshing artifacts and cataloging.
May 2004 1-25
Artifacts will be sorted into classes, such as bifaces, cores, bone tools, beads, miUing tools, and flakes.
Cataloging wiU provide basic data such as count, measurement, weight, material, condition, and
provenience. The catalogue wiU also provide information as to horizontal and vertical distribution of
cultural material.
Specialized stiidies will be conducted after the initial sorting and cataloging. The number and type of
specialized studies completed for this report depends on the materials recovered and tiie level of
research and speciaUzed studies to be completed include; lithic technological analysis, shell analysis,
obsidian hydration and sourcing, residue analysis, faunal analysis, and radiocarbon dating.
Specialized studies on specific material classes are discussed below.
1.10.1 Lithic Analysis
Analytical Methods
Technological lithic analysis based upon repUcative data will be conducted for all flaked stone artifacts
recovered. AU Uthic artifacts wiU also be examined on tiie basis of raw material types and reduction
stage categories. Reduction stage flake categories wiU be defined by comparing technological
attiibutes of replicated artifacts from known and cataloged flaked stone tool reduction technologies to
prehistoric controls. In tum, by comparing the prehistoric artifacts (contiols) to the known artifacts in
terms of manufacture, reduction stages wUl be assigned to technologically diagnostic debitage. Some
debitage, however, wiU be considered technologically undiagnostic due to tiie lack of atttibutes on
fragmentary pieces.
Technological debitage analysis based upon repUcative data (Flenniken 1981) was selected over other
analytical methods to obtain processual reduction stage identifications. Methods such as size-grading
(Abler 1989) or morphological atttibute analyses (length, widtii, thickness, weight, or completeness of
flake)(SulUvan and Rozen 1985) do not aUow processual antiiropological modeUng of specific
technological activities. Analyses dependent on metiic data provide tiie analyst with size-descriptive
information only; they do not allow reliable identification of prehistoric behaviors. Metric analyses do
not take into account cmcial variables such as raw material type, quaUty, shape, and flakeabiUty, nor do
they consider tiie skiU level of tiie prehistoric knapper, tiie reduction sequence(s), or tiie intended end
product(s).
Size grading of debitage as a form of "technological" analysis is also ineffectiial as a means of
providing accurate prehistoric Utiiic technological information (Scott 1985, 1990, 1991). In one case
May 2004 1-26
where samples of debitage from six different sites were subjected to both size-grading analyses and
technological analyses in an effort to define the Utiiic reduction activities that occurred at each site,
Scott (1985:69) found that ". . . size-grading artificially separates debitage into classes that do not
accurately reflect lithic reduction."
Ahler's (1989) work conceming size-grading analysis or "mass analysis of flaking debris" is tiie most
comprehensive study to date. However, even using experimental conttols, size-grading analysis
proves inadequate for making inferences as to the reduction process due to the qualifications placed
on interpretive comparisons. For example, Ahler's (1989) reduction model does not apply to multiple-
material sites where the size, shape, and quality of the original raw materials may have influenced
reduction strategies. Multiple flaking episodes are said to require interpretation through multi-variate
statistical analysis even though statistics are not capable of "interpreting" data. Ahler's approach
provides Uttie or no accurate technological information conceming Utiiic reduction techniques because
of inherent methodological eixors regarding scientific experimental procedure. Reasoned sampUng of
large assemblages combined witii technological atttibute and stage analysis is more informative than
are low-level descriptions of complete, large assemblages.
RepUcative systems analysis (RSA) is a metiiodological concept designed to understand the behavior
prehistorically applied to flaked stone artifacts (Flenniken 1981). The method involves repUcating,
through flintknapping experimentation, a hypothesized sequence (based upon debitage frequencies
documented during analysis) of Utiiic reduction employed at a particular archaeological site. By
comparing the prehistoric debitage with cataloged experimental debitage, it is possible to determine tiie
reduction techniques and sequence(s) tiiat were employed at a given site by prehistoric knappers.
Experimentation has also demonsttated tiiat many by-products associated with tool manufacture can
be mistaken for functional tools such as "scrapers" (Flenniken and Haggarty 1979).
The RSA approach offers a reUable means to botii identify and demonsttate tiie method(s) by which
prehistoric knappers reduced available stone into flaked stone tools and weapons. Because
flintiaiapping techniques are leamed rather tiian innate behavior, reduction sttategies can be both
culturally and temporally diagnostic (Flenniken 1985; Flenniken and StanfiU 1980). Thus, by
studying the reduction technologies employed at archaeological sites, it is possible, once tiie
technological foundation based upon numerous technological analyses has been estabUshed, to
correlate sites in time and space by identifying related or similar Utiiic technologies (Flenniken and
StanfiU 1980). The correlations may aid future research involving descriptions of regional mosaics of
human activity pattems as they vary through time. In regions where volcanic or acidic sediments
preserve very Uttle of tiie archaeological record except stone artifacts, or where prehistoric activities left
May 2004 1-27
Uttle or no ttaces, this method of gathering infonnation can be extremely productive. The RSA
approach to lithic analysis is useful and appropriate because it focuses on determining what Utiiic
technologies were used at a particular site, how these technologies may have changed through time,
and whether these changes correlate to specific time periods.
Attiibutes evidenced on the prehistoric debitage, in conjunction with experimental analogs, will be used
to identify technologically diagnostic debitage, which enables flakes to be assigned to specific
experimentaUy derived reduction stages (Henniken 1978, 1981). The remaining debitage wiU not be
ascribed to any reduction stage because of tiie fragmentary nature of the specimens; tiierefore, it wUl
be characterized as technologically undiagnostic, although atttibutes such as material type, heat
tieatment, and presence/absence and type of cortex will be noted.
Debitage classification attributes wiU be divided into reduction-oriented technological categories, and
these categories will then be segregated into stages. Stage 1, core reduction debitage is defined on tiie
basis of amount and location of cortex on the dorsal surface, platform attiibutes, dorsal arris count and
direction, and flake cross/long-section configuration. Stage 2, bifacial reduction debitage is classified
on the basis of multi-faceted platform configuration and location, location of remnant bulb of force,
dorsal arris count and direction, flake termination, flake cross/long-section orientation, and presence or
absence of detachment scar. Stage 3, percussion bifacial thinning debitage wiU be segregated on the
basis of multi-faceted platform configuration, size, lipping, and location, dorsal arris count and
direction, flake termination, cross/long-section orientation, and presence or absence of detachment
scar. Stage 4, pressure bifacial reduction debitage wUl be separated on tiie basis of multi-faceted
platform configuration and location, dorsal arris count and direction, flake termination, platform-to-
long axis geometty, cross/long-section orientation, and presence or absence of detachment scar.
Undiagnostic fragments (flake fragments, witii or without cortex) wiU be defined as such. These
reduction-oriented technological categories wUl be further segregated on tiie basis of geological
material types such as metavolcanic, vein quartz, metasedimentary, quartzite, chert, and obsidian.
Interpretation of the reduction sequence from tiiis site wiU be determined using only tiie
technologically diagnostic debitage, whereas discussions conceming Utiiic raw material types include
all debitage and formed artifacts.
Depending on the amount and type of debitage recovered, the sample wiU be analyzed at 100% or sub-
sampled to address the questions posed. The sample of the debitage, recovered from excavation units,
wiU be analyzed, identified, and assigned to specific technological categories and stages.
TechnologicaUy diagnostic debitage will be assigned to a specific reduction category, and served as tiie
basis for interpretation of Utiiic technology. Since tiie artifacts recovered from tiie site are intta-site
May 2004 1-28
similar in technological character, the sample of the entire excavated assemblage may be small, and
technological change from level one through the deepest level may not be identified. Consequently aU
artifacts from the site may be combined for the purpose of interpretation of the site's lithic technology.
Not all flaked stone reduction technologies are the same throughout prehistory even within one
locality such as southem Cahfomia, or within one formed artifact class. For example, biface reduction
sequences may vary technologically from site to site as a result of cultural/temporal differences even
though the same raw lithic material is present at these sites. By identifying technologically diagnostic
debitage from sites, specific reduction technologies can be easUy segregated.
Ground Stone Tools
These tools were used primarily for vegetal processing; however, ethnographic records indicate tiiat
bone, clay for pottery, and pigments for paint were also ground witii these implements (Gayton 1929;
Kroeber 1925; Spier 1978). Ground stone tools were first separated into four groups: manos,
metates, pesties, and mortar/bowls, recognizing, of course, tiiat aU four groups in actuaUty featiire
complex tools tiiat have two primary parts. Attributes selected for the discussion of ground stone
tools are most amenable to comparisons witii similar artifacts from other sites in the region.
Manos: Atttibutes important in the classification of manos include cobble or shaped, number of faces
used (bifacial or unifacial) to determine extent of usage, end battering (presence or absence resulting
from roughening grinding surfaces), outiine, and cross-section. The shape of a mano can aid in
identifying the type of metate (i.e., shallow or deep basin) used witii tiie mano. Shaping is important
in determining the lengtii of occupation of the site: the time needed to shape a proper mano woudd not
be taken if tiie user only meant to employ tiie mano for a day or two and then discard it. Shaping
denotes an unnecessary amount of time expended to make an object aesthetically pleasing.
Metates: Ground stone fragments wUl be identified as metate fragments based on tiie presence of at
least one concave ground surface. Both slab (tiiin and highly portable) and block (thick and heavy)
metates may be present. Some may have been used unifacially and others bifacially, denoting tiie
amount of time spent grinding.
Miscellaneous Artifacts
Miscellaneous artifacts include specimens more esoteric in nature and items that cannot be placed in
tiie above categories. These generaUy denote status and may include beads and pendants, or, in tiie
case of rittial/ceremonial activities may include shaman crystals and hematite (red or yellow paint
May 2004 1-29
stone). Other items classified under the miscellaneous category include tarring pebbles, boiling
stones, and manuports.
1.10.2 Faunal Analysis
Shell is present and will be identified, sorted, counted, and weighed by species. Use of this data will
contribute to answering questions regarding diet, environmental setting and change through time, and
settiement pattems.
Bone is present and wUl be identified by genus and species when possible. When species
identification is not possible, the bone wUl be identified to successively higher levels of classification,
settiing on terms such as small, medium, or large vertebrate mammal. Elements wiU then be identified
as bumed and unbumed. When possible, cooking methods wiU be discussed. Faunal information,
including number of individual species and weight by species, wiU be tabulated by unit and by level.
If otoliths (fish ear bones) are present, they wiU be analyzed as to species, size of fish, and season of
capture. When possible, age of capture of identifiable specimens wiU be estimated. Bird bone,
wherever possible, wiU be identified to family, genus, and/or species, as the information about
migratory birds can add to the data for determining seasonality.
Methods
Each bone wiU be examined to determine: (1) element; (2) right or left side; (3) highest taxonomic
category; (4) evidence of buming, and if so, degree of oxidation; and (5) evidence of butchering, and if
so, method of butchering. Comparative skeletal collections used in the identification process included
those from Scripps Institute of Oceanography as weU as from private coUections. Bone atiases
(Lawrence 1951; Nickel et al. 1986; Olsen 1985; Sandefur 1977; Schmid 1972) supplemented the
analysis.
Categories
Categories used in this analysis include:
(1) Bumed: Bone elements or fragments in this category show color change from exposure to
heat or fire (oxidation). Colors may include:
• Brown: indicates exposure to heat, but Uttle or no exposure to open flames.
• Black: shows direct exposure to open flames (i.e., roasting or discard in a fire).
May 2004 1-30
• Blue/White (calcined): denotes direct exposure to a fire hotter than 800° Celsius
(Ubelaker 1978:34), and may represent bone that was severely bumed during preparation.
If flesh was present on the bone during exposure to the fu-e, tiie bone would exhibit signs
of warping and shrinking (Ubelaker 1978:34). Calcined bone may also be the result of
having been discarded in a fire hearth (Wing and Brown 1979:109).
(2) Unbumed: No evidence of buming or oxidation.
(3) Butchered: Bone with evidence of processing by sUcing or chopping actions.
(4) Lizard: Small animal bone fragments, which are usually mandible fragments witii homodont
teeth that are sttaight instead of curved like snake teeth, or long-bone fragments tiiat are split
and funnel-shaped, or vertebrae witii ball and socket features with a flattened vertebral
foramen.
(5) Snake: Vertebrae with ball and socket features with a domed-shaped vertebral foramen.
(6) Teleostei: Funnel-shaped vertebrae with/witiiout the spinous process attached, and other
skeletal elements considered as bony fish.
(7) Ray/Skate: Dmm-shaped vertebrae that are from cartilaginous fish (rays/skates,
shark), as well as spines/hooks.
(8) Elasmobranch: Dmm-shaped vertebrae tiiat are from cartilaginous fish (rays/skates, shark).
When species identification as noted above, is not possible, tiie bone wiU be identified to successively
higher levels of classification. These include:
(1) Small Mammal: All non-diagnostic vertebrate fragments, witii size between a
mouse and a jackrabbit.
(2) Medium Mammal: AU non-diagnostic vertebrate fragments, for which sizes are larger than a
jackrabbit, but smaller than a deer.
(3) Large Mammal: AU non-diagnostic vertebrate fragments, for which sizes are deer-size and
larger.
The quantification of faunal material can be studied with several methods. The methods used in
individual studies are usually determined by the sample size and type of site under investigation. Two
methods wiU be used in this study: the number of identified specimens per taxon (NISP), which
represents the total number of specimens witiiin a category; and the mimmum number of individuals
(MNI), which represents the minimum number of individuals within a genus and species category.
May 2004 1-31
1.10.3 Ceramic Analysis
The cross section of each ceramic fragment wiU be analyzed to identify specific mineral inclusions.
The San Diego region is divided into different geologic zones, which include the coastal plains, tiie
Peninsular Range mountains, and the Salton Trough desert. The coast and desert regions contain
aUuvial clays made from marine and lacustiine sedimentary rock, while tiie Peninsular Range
mountains contain residual clays made from gabbroic-granitic materials. By identifying mineral
inclusions of the ceramics specific to each of these geologic zones, data on the possible tiade and
movement of the people who once occupied the site can be obtained.
• Tizon Brown Ware
Prior research on San Diego ceramics has resulted in the identification of two different ceramic wares,
brown ware and buff ware (Rogers 1936:4). Brown wares are commonly referred to as mountain
wares, also known as Tizon Brown Ware. Tizon Brown Ware was originally associated witii tiie
northwestem Arizona region (Euler 1959). Many of the southem Califomia ceramics were later
included under this name, indicating that there is some regional continuity between tiie Arizona and
Southem Califomia ceramics, which there is not. As a result, there has been a tendency to classify
southem Califomia ceramics under the aU-inclusive Tizon Brown Ware term, without any subtypes.
Problems arise witii this classification because of the different variations of Tizon Brown Ware in
Soutiiem Cahfomia. Moreover, many brown ware sherds are not restricted to mountain sites and can
be found along the coast and inland near the Salton Sea (Van Camp 1979:47). Tizon Brown Ware
vessels were shaped using the paddle-and-anvil technique and were made from residual granitic-
derived clays. Residual clays are primarily found in tiie mountain and coastal areas of San Diego
County. These clays are the end product of weathering and breakup of gabbroic and granitic
outcroppings of the Peninsular Range BatiioUth. Along the westem side of the Peninsular Range,
more gabbroic rocks are found and are characterized by a high frequency of plagioclase and
amphibole. Along the east side, which slopes and extends into the desert region, are granitic rocks.
There is a decUne in tiie frequency of amphibole in the granitic rocks, but a higher concenttation of
biotite mica and quartz (Hildebrand et al., n.d.). Clays from the eastem granitic side have few to no
amphibole minerals (Hildebrand et al., n.d.). The clays contained in Tizon Brown Ware originate
along the westem gabbroic side of the Peninsular Range and thus contain inclusions of plagioclase,
quartz, mica, and amphibole.
May 2004 1-32
• Lower Colorado Buff Ware
Besides Tizon Brown Ware, the other common ceramic ware found in Southem Califomia is buff
ware. Buff ware ceramics are commonly referred to as a desert ware, also known as Lower Colorado
Buff Ware. Buff wares are made from sedimentary clays that result from the mixture of soil and
water, where the coarse particles get left behind and the fine particles are deposited some distance from
the parent source. Sedimentary clays are finer in texture and have a more homogenous composition
when compared to mountain clays (Rice 1987:37). These types of clays can be found in former lake
bottoms and alluvial deposits in the Colorado Desert and Imperial County near Lake Cahuilla. Lower
Colorado Buff Ware vessels found in the San Diego region were also shaped using tiie paddle-and-
anvil technique. The minerals contained in Lower Colorado Buff Ware include quartz, feldspar, rare
instances of amphibole, and some mica.
• Salton Brown Ware
The classification for ceramic wares in the San Diego Region does not aUow for a third type of ware
that is found in tiie San Diego region, Salton Brown Ware. Salton Brown Ware is another desert
ware, which has a similar appearance to that of Tizon Brown Ware. Lower Colorado Buff Ware is
easily discemible from both brown wares, however distinguishing Tizon Brown Ware and Salton
Brown Ware is not as simple because tiiese two brown wares cannot be differentiated upon visual
inspection. Salton Brown Ware originates along the eastem side of the Peninsular Range and has a
higher content of mica, quartz, and a near to absence of amphibole when compared to Tizon Brown
Ware. Salton Brown Ware vessels were also shaped using the paddle-and-anvil technique.
Current research is being conducted on the mineral composition of pottery thin-sections because of
the similar appearances that Tizon Brown Ware and Salton Brown Ware retain (Hildebrand et al.,
n.d.). In order to differentiate the two brown wares, a fresh edge must be broken off the sherd to
examine the cross section. Examining the outer appearance of tiie sherd does not provide enough
information about tiie mineral composition of the sherds and can lead to mistakes in ceramic ware
identification. In Hildebrand's thin-section study, the Salton Brown Ware sherds had an average
mineral composition of 60 percent quartz, 10 percent plagioclase, 10-20 percent biotite, 5 percent
muscovite, and 5 percent amphibole (Hildebrand et al., n.d.). The thin section study of the Tizon
Brown Ware sherds indicated an average mineral composition of 50 percent quartz, 20 percent
plagioclase, 20 percent amphibole, 4 percent biotite, and 1 percent muscovite (Hildebrand et al., n.d.).
These results suggest that Salton Brown Ware ceramics have higher percentages of quartz and mica
May 2004 1-33
and an almost absence of amphibole, while Tizon Brown Ware has a higher percentage of amphibole
and plagioclase.
Methods
A related method used for the analysis of the ceramics at CA-SDI-8694 that can differentiate between
Salton Brown Ware and Tizon Brown Ware is through the use of a low-powered microscope. As
with the tiiin-section study, an edge must be broken off and the fresh break examined under tiie
microscope to look for the presence or absence of amphibole. Samples that contain amphibole wiU be
identified as Tizon Brown Ware, and samples that have an absence of amphibole wiU be identified as
Salton Brown Ware. Samples in which there are uncertainties in identification wiU be placed in tiie
"unknown" category to reduce the percentage of error. This process wiU be conducted twice to
ensure the correct identification. On samples that have two different results, a third examination of the
sherd will be performed. Although amphibole can be found in some Salton Brown Ware fragments, it
is rare (Hildebrand et.al., n.d.).
1.10.4 Microbotanical, Macrobotanical, and Protein Residue Studies
The importance of protein residue, phytoUth, and pollen studies, which assist in determining tool use,
diet, and environmental reconstmction, cannot be oversttessed. Although relatively new and somewhat
rare in the Uterature, these kinds of studies are necessary to answer research questions conceming
settlement and subsistence. If tools are recovered that are good candidates for residue analysis, tiien
they wiU be submitted for protein residue studies. It is anticipated that a minimum of 10 and a
maximum of 30 tools will be submitted for residue analysis.
The residue study wiU be conducted by Dr. Robert Yohe of Cahfomia State University Bakersfield.
The technique for blood residue identification used by Dr. Yohe involves lifting blood residues from
the artifact surfaces and edge margins and then examining them with a coated paper strip that is
sensitive to blood hemoglobin. Confirmed blood deposits are then subjected to a chemical process
that crystallizes the hemoglobin. Since the size and shape of hemoglobin crystals differs among
animals and man, it is possible to identify the blood samples according to species. This procedure
could be helpful in confirming the functional aspect of the stone tools and in identifying the specific
game animals that were part of the prehistoric diet.
May 2004 1-34
1.10.5 Obsidian Source Identification and Hydration Rim Measurements
When available, obsidian samples wiU be submitted for source identification and/or hydration rim
measurements. Usually, tiie number of obsidian items recovered is small, and all samples large
enough (1.0 cm in maximum measurement) are submitted for analysis. It is anticipated that
approximately 30 obsidian samples will be submitted for sourcing and hydration analysis.
1.10.6 Radiocarbon Dating Analysis
When shell, bone, or charcoal from hearths or other reUable materials are available for radiocarbon
dating, a minimum of four and a maximum of ten samples wiU be submitted. Radiocarbon dating
provides valuable information for site placement within tiie prehistoric chronology for San Diego
County.
1.11 REPORT PREPARATION
The format for the final report foUows Office of Historic Preservation Guidelines (1991) and wiU be
filed at the appropriate state clearinghouse(s).
The contents of the report include the following:
1. Text includes but is not hmited to: an abstiact; a discussion of field methods (i.e., survey
methods, surface coUection metiiods, number, size, depth, and placement of surface
scrapes, STPs, and units); results of analyses, including tables that provide cultural material
by provenience (unit, depth); the synthesis of data; and the results of special studies
conducted; tiie description of cultural sttatigraphy; an evaluation of site significance; and
discussion of the results in terms of relevant research questions.
2. Graphics will be used to delineate the horizontal and vertical extent of the site(s). AU maps
will include a site datum, a north arrow (marked tme north or magnetic north), and a scale
in meters. Each site wiU have a site map showing the location of Ixl-m units, significant
landforms and/or landmarks, surface cultural features, and surface artifact coUection areas.
Maps will be used to show the location of collected surface artifacts by point provenience,
surface scrapes, or collection cell. SidewaU profiles of selected units wiU be included, and
aU features wiU be drawn with appropriate scales in metiics. Drawings of
temporally-diagnostic artifacts wUl be included, as weU as photographs or illusttations of
sample artifact types recovered from the site.
May 2004 1-35
Attachments will include a bibliography of references cited in text, tables, and graphics; site forms for
new sites and updates of previously recorded sites; original reports of special studies (i.e., radiocarbon
submittal sheets and reports, obsidian analysis reports); catalogues of collected material; resumes of
key personnel; and any pertinent correspondence.
1.12 NATIVE AMERICAN PARTICIPATION
A Native American monitor wUl be invited to participate in the data recovery program. The selection
of the Native American Monitor was on the basis of proximity to the project area and identified as a
Luiseno Native American. Mark Mojado of tiie San Luis Rey Band of Mission Indians has been
selected as tiie Native American Monitor and either he or his representative wUl be on-site on a daily
basis.
1.12.1 Provisions for Encountering Human Remains
Prior to starting fieldwork, a meeting witii the appropriate Native American representative wiU be
conducted to discuss burial procedures. If human remains are encountered, then tiie specific
procedures outlined by the Califomia Native American Heritage Commission (NAHC) (1991), and in
accordance witii Section 7050.5 of the Healtii and Safety Code, Section 5097.98 of tiie PubUc
Resources Code (Chapter 1492, Statutes of 1982, Senate Bill 297), and SB 447 (Chapter 44, Stattites
of 1987) will be followed. Section 7050.5 (c) wiU guide the potential Native American mvolvement, in
the event of discovery of human remains.
Specific measures to be followed should human remains be encountered include: 1) work will cease in
the immediate area of the burial; 2) The person in direct charge of the project wiU contact the County
of San Diego Coroner; and 3) as per Section 7050.5(c) "If the coroner determines tiiat the remains
are not subject to his or her authority, and if the Comer has reason to beUeve tiiat the human remains
are those of a Native American, or has reason to beUeve they are those of a Native American, he or she
wiU contact the Native American Heritage Commission." The Native American Heritage
Commission, the local agency representative, and the authorized local tribal representative wiU review
and provide input as to further action. Under typical circumstances, the Most Likely Descendent(s)
(MLD) of tiie discovered remains wiU then be contacted by tiie NAHC. The MLD has 24 hours to
make recommendations to the Project Owner/Environmental CompUance Manager regarding tteatment
and disposition of the identified remains.
May 2004 1-36
Altematives forthe disposition of human remains and associated artifacts include: 1) leaving human
remains in sitw, 2) uncovering the human remains for analysis in sitw, 3) removing human remains for
analysis and curation; 4) removing human remains for analysis and repatriation to local Native
Americans affiUated witii tiie local area; and 5) removing human remains with no analysis for
repatriation to Native Americans affiliated with the local area.
1.13 PERSONNEL
Dennis Gallegos, Project Manager, and Monica Guerrero M.A., (RPA) Project Archaeologist wUl
provide project direction and wUl be responsible for the overall quality of the study. Jeff Flenniken
Ph.D. and Tracy Stropes wUl provide Utiiic analysis. Larry Tift, Field Director, will be on site daily to
direct the field effort; and, Tracy Sttopes, Lab Director, wiU ensure that artifacts are handled in a
professional manner, and that materials for special studies are submitted to subconsultants. Resumes
for key personnel are provided in the attached Statement of QuaUfications.
1.14 CURATION
AU artifacts, ecofacts, field notes, and photographs are the property of the landowner requesting tiie
work, however the consultant wiU request tiiat the artifacts be permanentiy curated at a repository
acceptable to the agency (i.e., San Luis Rey Band of Mission Indians, Pechanga Band of Luiseiio
Mission Indians, or the San Diego Archaeological Center). Curation at an acceptable repository wUl
complete the data recovery program. The cost for curation wiU be bome by tiie cUent responsible for
the impact/effect. Interim curation during analysis and report preparation wiU be at Gallegos &
Associates.
1.15 REPORT SUBMITTAL
The draft report for review by the City of Carlsbad wiU be submitted within four to six months of
completing all fieldwork. Copies of the final report wiU be submitted to the City of Carlsbad and to
the South Coastal Information Center at San Diego State University.
1.16 MONITORING
An archaeologist and a Native American wiU monitor all grading and earth moving activities during
constiuction in tiie vicinity of CA-SDI-8694. Should burials/cremations or featiires be located,
grading and/or earth moving activities wiU be halted for a period of 72 hours to allow for excavation
May 2004 1-37
I
and removal. Analysis of artifacts and ecofacts recovered during monitoring wiU also be included in
the final report.
May 2004 1-38
SECTION 2
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Almstedt, Ruth F.
1974 Bibliography ofthe Diegueiio Indians. Ramona: Ballena Press.
Bancroft, Hubert Howe
1886 History of Califomia, 4 Volumes. The History Company, San Francisco.
Barrows, David Prescott
1900 Ethnobotany of the Cahuilla Indians of Southem Califomia. University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, IlUnois.
Bean, Lowell J.
1972 Mukat's People. University of CaUfomia Press: Berkeley.
Bean, Lowell J. and Katherine Siva Saubel
1972 Temalpakh: Cahuilla Indian Knowledge and Usage of Plants. Malki Museum
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BedweU, S. F.
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Bull, Charles and Russell Kaldenberg
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Burms, Emest J.
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1982 Analysis and Interpretation of CA-Lan-844: A Prehistoric Quarry Workshop
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University, Los Angeles, Califomia.
Cuero, Delfina
1968 The Autobiography of a Diegueno Woman: As Told to Florence C. Shipek.
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Davis, Owen K.
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1979 Trampling as an Agency in the Formation of Edge Damage: An Experiment in
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Flenniken, J., and A. StanfiU
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Gallegos, Dennis R.
1985 Batiquitos Lagoon Revisited. Casual Papers of the Cultural Resource
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Califomia.
1987 A Review and Synthesis of Envu-onmental and Cultural Material for the
Batiquitos Lagoon Region. In San Dieguito-La Jolla: Chronology and
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May 2004 2-2
1991 Antiquity and Adaptation at Agua Hedionda, Carlsbad, Califomia. In: Hunter -
Gatherers of Early Holocene Coastal Califomia, edited by Jon M. Eriandson
and Roger H. Colton. Institute of Archaeology, University of CaUfomia,
Los Angeles.
Gallegos, Dennis R. and Carolyn E. Kyle
1988 Five Thousand Years of Maritime Subsistence at Ballast Point Prehistoric Site
SDI-48 (W-164), San Diego, Califomia. Ms. on file, South Coastal
Information Center, San Diego State University, San Diego, CaUfomia.
1992 Historical/Archaeological Survey and Test Report for Carlsbad Ranch, Carlsbad,
CaUfomia. Ms. on file. South Coastal Information Center, San Diego State
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Gallegos, Dennis R. and Nina Harris
1995 Data Recovery Program for a Portion of CA-SDI-8797 Carlsbad Ranch,
Carlsbad, Califomia. Ms. on file, South Coastal Information Center, San Diego
State University, San Diego, CaUfomia
Gallegos, Dennis R., Adella Schroth, Tracy Stiopes, Nina Harris, and Larry Tift
1999 5000 Years of Occupation: Cultural Resource Inventory and Assessment
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Gayton, A. H.
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Gifford, Edward W.
1918 Clans and Moieties in Southem Califomia. In: University of Califomia
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Reprinted in 1993.
Guerrero, Monica, Dennis Gallegos and Tracy Sttopes
2001 Cultural Resource Test Report for the Oceanside-Escondido Rail Project
Oceanside, Califomia. Ms. on file at South Coastal Information Center, San
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Harrington, J. P.
1978 Chinigchinich. Malki Museum Press, Banning, Califomia.
Hedges, Kenneth E.
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Heizer, R. F. and A. F. AUnquist
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and the United States to 1920. University of Califomia, Berkeley.
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May 2004 2-3
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n.d. In Press The Significance of Patayan Ceramic VariabiUty: Using Trace Element
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Hooper, Lucille
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Hughes, Richard and Delmar L. Tme
1985 Perspectives on the Distribution of Obsidian in San Diego County, CaUfomia.
In North American Archaeologist 3:1-26.
Kaldenberg, RusseU L.
1982 Rancho Park North, A San Dieguito-La Jolla Shellfish Processing Site in
Coastal Southem CaUfomia. Occasional Paper, No. 6. Imperial CoUege
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KeneaUy, Finbar, OFM
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Franciscan History, Washington, D.C.
Kroeber, Alfred L.
1925 Handbook ofthe Indians of Califomia. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin
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Kyle, Carolyn E. and Dennis R. Gallegos
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CA-SDI-11079, Otay Mesa, San Diego, Califomia. Ms. on file. South Coastal
Information Center, San Diego State University, San Diego, CaUfomia.
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Press, Berkeley:
Lawrence, Barbara
1951 Post-Cranial Skeletal Characteristics of Deer, Pronghom, and Sheep-Goat wifli
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Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Luomala, K.
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Edited by Robert F. Heizer. Smithsonian Institute, Washington D.C.
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