HomeMy WebLinkAboutMS 05-13; MARCUS MINOR SUBDIVISION; WATER QUALITY TECHNICAL REPORT; 2006-07-01WATER QUALITY TECHNICAL REPORT
2701 Highland Drive, Carlsbad, California
Minor Subdivision No. 05-13
For:
Robert Soto
300 Carlsbad Village Drive
Carlsbad, Ca.92008
Prepared By:
Golden & Associates
2233 Maxson St.
Oceanside, Ca. 92054
July 2006
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... .. ................... 1
PROJECT DESCRIPTION......................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
2.1 Topography and Land Use.......................................................................2
2.2 Watershed ....................................................................................... .2
2.3 Post-Construction Storm Water................................................................3
2.4 Conditions of Concern..........................................................................4
POLLUTANTS AND CONDITIONS OF CONCERN .................................................. 4
BeneficialUses....................................................................................................................5
ImpairedWater Bodies ........................................... . ............................................................ 7
Conditionsof..........................................................................................7
STORM WATER BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES............................................7
SiteDesign BMPs..................................................................................................7
SourceControl BMPs ............................................................................................. 7
Project-specific BMPs ...........................................................................................8
Structural Treatment BMPs ................................................................................... 8
S. PROJECT B1'S'tP PLA.? IMPLEMENTATION ............................................................. 8
ConstructionBMPs ......................... . ................................ ................................ . .... 8
Recommended Post-Construction BUT Plan Option............................................8
Operation and Maintenance Plans .........................................................................9
Maintenance Responsibility..............................................................10
TABLES
Table1. Beneficial Uses for Inland Surface Waters.......................................................................5
Table2. Beneficial Uses for Groundwater ..................................................................................... 5
APPENDICES
Storm Water Requirements Applicability Checklist
Project Maps
Urban Runoff Construction Site Inspection Record
Storm Water Fact Sheet (Vegetated Swale
Misc, Data
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This Water Quality Technical Report (WQTR) was prepared to define recommended project
Best Management Practice (EMP) options that satisfy the requirements identified in the
following documents:
City of San Diego Municipal Code, Chapter 4, Article 3, Division 3 - Storm Water
Management and Discharge Control,
City of San Diego Municipal Code, Chapter 14, Article 2, Division 2 - Storm Water
Runoff Control and Drainage Regulations,
City of San Diego Municipal Code, Land Development Manual - Storm Water
Standards,
County of San Diego Wãfthhd..P .àtfi ñSiin Water Management and Discharge
Control Ordinance (County Ordinance),
Standard Specifications for Public Works Construction,
NPDES General Permit for Storm Water Discharges Associated with Construction
Activity, and
San Diego Municipal NPDES Storm Water Permit (Order Number 2001-01).
Specifically, this report includes the following:
Project description and location with respect to the Water Quality Control Plan for the
San Diego Basin (Basin Plan);
BUT design criteria and water quality treatment flow and volume calculations;
Recommended BUT options for the project;
BUT device information for the recommended BUT options; and
Operation, maintenance, and funding for the recommended BMPs.
2. PROJECT DESCRIPTION
This 0.5 acre project is located at the Northwest intersection of Las Flores Drive and Highland
Drive in the City of Carlsbad. Atwo lot parcel map is proposed with the widening of Highland
Drive along the East side of the property.
2.1 Topography and Land Use
The property is bounded by Highland Drive on the East and Las Flores Drive on the South. An
existing house and garage are located on the North side of the property. The property gently
slopes to the Southwest with sparse vegetation on the site currently. The proposed use will be
two lots with two private driveways.
2.2 Watershed
The project currently drains Southwesterly towards Las Flores Drive. The watershed consists of
0.12 acres from the adjacent Northerly property and 0.48 acres from the subject property. There
is approximately a 16 foot drop over 180 feet. Runoff will be collected along the Westerly
boundary of the subject property and discharged into Las Flores Drive.
The natural drainage patterns have been maintained. Runoff from Highland Drive will be
diverted from this project and will flow Westerly into Las Flores Drive.
23 Post-construction Storm Water
This project will ultimately support two single family houses with a minimum of grading. A
block wall will be constructed on the Westerly boundary of the property to prevent the runoff
water from flowing to the West. A dirt and grass-lined swale will be constructed on the Westerly
boundary to direct runoff water to Las Flores Drive. A curb drain outlet will be constructed at the
Southwest corner of the subject property. One catch basin will be constructed along the swale
and connected to a six inch pipe which will connect to the curb drain outlet (SDRWD-25).
2.3a DESCRIPTION
Grassed filter strips (vegetated filter strips, filter strips, and grassed filters) are vegetated
surfaces that are designed to treat sheet now from adjacent surfaces. Filter strips function
by slowing runoff velocities and filtering out sediment and other pollutants, and by
providing some infiltration into underlying soils. Filter strips were originally used as an
agricultural treatment practice, and have more recently evolved into an urban practice.
With proper design and maintenance, filter strips can provide relatively high pollutant
removal.
Grass-lined swale convey storm water runoff through a stable conduit. Vegetation lining
the swale reduces the flow velocity of concentrated runoff. Grassed channels usually are
not designed to control peak runoff loads by themselves and are often used in
combination with other BMPs, such as subsurface drains and riprap stabilization.
Where moderately steep slopes require drainage, grassed channels can include excavated
depressions or check dams to enhance runoff storage, decrease flow rates, and enhance
pollutant removal. Peak discharges can be reduced through temporary detention in the
channel. Pollutants can be removed from storm water by filtration through vegetation, by
deposition, or in some cases by infiltration of soluble nutrients into the soil. The degree
of pollutant removal in a channel depends on the residence time of water in the channel
and the amount of contact with vegetation and the soil surface. As a result, removal
efficiency is highly dependent on local conditions.
2.3b CONSTRUCTION
The grass-lined swale should never exceed 5%. The depth of the swale is to be -
approximately 1-foot and the width should be approximately 3.0-feet. The reason for this
is that grassed channels have a limited ability to control runoff from large storms and can
not handle flow rates in excess 5 feet per second.
Grass-lined channels should be sited in accordance with the natural drainage system and
should not cross ridges. The channel design should not have sharp curves or significant
changes in slope. The channel should not receive direct sedimentation from disturbed
areas and should be sited only on the perimeter of a construction site to convey relatively
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clean storm water runoff. Channels should be separated from disturbed areas by a
vegetated buffer or other BUT to reduce sediment loads.
Basic design recommendations for grassed channels include the following:
Construction and vegetation of the channel should occur before grading and paving
activities begin.
Design velocities should be less than 5 feet per second.
Geotextiles can be used to stabilize vegetation until it is fully established.
Covering the bare soil with sod, mulches with netting, or geotextiles can provide
reinforced storm water conveyance immediately.
Triangular-shaped channels are used with low velocities and small quantities of
runoff; parabolic grass channels are used for larger flows and where space is
available; trapezoidal channels are used with large flows of low velocity (low slope).
Outlet stabilization structures should be installed if the runoff volume or velocity has
the potential to exceed the capacity of the receiving area.
Channels should be designed to convey runoff from a 10-year storm without erosion.
The sides of the channel should be sloped less than 2:1, and triangular-shaped
channels along roads should be sloped 2:1 or less for safety.
All trees, brushes, stumps, and other debris should be removed during construction.
2.4 Conditions of Concern
The following pollutant constituents that are of potential concern and could effect water quality
are expected:
5.0 POLLUTANTS AND CONDITIONS OF CONCERN
Based on land use, potential pollutants from the site under existing conditions include sediment,
nutrients, organic compounds, trash & debris, oxygen demanding substances and pestisides.
Below is a list of potential pollutants and there level of consem:
Primary
Hydrocarbons from paved areas
Pesticides and fertilizers from urban landscaping
Secondary
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Trash, concrete and plaster wash outs, and equipment drippings from construction
activities
Dust and erosion from grading
Airborne hydrocarbons from construction equipment and paving operations
Third
Landscaper and tenant application of pesticides and hydrocarbons (paints, etc.)
Trash spilled from dumpsters and discarded by owners
Clogged inlets. .
Vehicle drippings and spills
Beneficial Uses
The beneficial uses of the inland surface waters and the groundwater basins must not be
threatened by the project. Tables 1 and 2 list the beneficial uses for the surface waters and
groundwater within the project's hydrologic area
TABLE 1. BENEFICIAL USES FOR INLAND SURFACE WATERS
11
Buena Vista . -
Creek and EEEEEEEEEEEE
Lagoon
TABLE 2. BENEFICIAL USES FOR GROUNDWATER
WIT! EP
vV 11
WPM
01,
BuenaCreekTTI Lagoon -
Notes for Tables 1 and 2:
Ex: Excepted from Municipal
-5-
E: Existing beneficial use
P: proposed beneficial use
N: Not a beneficial use
IND - Industrial Services Supply. Includes use of water for industrial activities that do not depend primarily on
water quality including, but not limited to, mining, cooling water supply, hydraulic conveyance, gravel washing, fire
protection, or oil well re-pressurization.
NAV - Navigation: Includes uses of water for shipping, travel, or other transportation by private, military, or
commercial vessels.
REC1 - Contact Recreation: Includes use of water for recreational activities involving body contact with water
where ingestion of water is reasonably possible. These uses include, but are not limited to, swimming, wading,
water-skiing, skin and SCUBA diving, surfing, white water activities, fishing, or use of natural hot springs.
R.EC2 - Non-Contact Recreation: Includes use of water for recreation involving proximity to water, but not
normally involving body contact with water where ingestion of water is reasonably possible. These uses include,
but are not limited to, picnicking, sunbathing, hiking, camping, boating, tide pool and marine life study, hunting,
sightseeing, or aesthetic enjoyment in conjunction with the above activities. -
COMM - Commercial and Sport Fishing: Includes the uses of water for commercial or recreational collection of
fish, shellfish, or other organisms including, but not limited to, uses involving organisms intended for human
consumption or bait purposes.
BIOL - Preservation of Biological Habitats of Special Significance: Includes uses of water that support designated
areas or habitats, such as established refuses, parks, sanctuaries, ecological reserves, or Areas of Special Biological
Significance (ASBS), where the preservation or enhancement of natural resources requires special protection.
EST —Estuarine Habitat: Includes uses of water that support estuarine ecosystems including, but not limited to,
preservation or enhancement of estuarine habitats, vegetation, fish, shellfish, or wildlife (e.g., estuarine mnim1,
waterfowl, shorebirds).
WILD - Wildlife Habitat: Includes uses of water that support terrestrial ecosystems including but not limited to,
preservation and enhancement of terrestrial habitats, vegetation, wildlife, (e.g., mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians, invertebrates), or wildlife and food sources.
RARE - Rare, Threatened, or Endangered Species: Includes uses of water that support habitats necessary, at least in
part, for the survival and successful maintenance of plant or animal species established under state or federal law as
rare, threatened or endangered.
MAR - Marine Habitat: Includes uses of water that support marine ecosystems including, but not limited to,
preservation or enhancement of marine habitats, vegetation such as kelp, fish, shellfish, or wildlife (e.g., marine
mammals, shorebirds).
MIGR - Migration of Aquatic Organisms: Includes uses of water that support habitats necessary for migration,
acclimatization between fresh and salt water, or other temporary activities by aquatic organisms, such as
anadromous fish.
SHELL - Shellfish Harvesting: Includes uses of water that support habitats suitable for the collection of filter-
feeding shellfish (e.g., clams, oysters and mussels) for human consumption, commercial, or sport purposes.
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Impaired Water Bodies
Section 303(d) of the Federal Clean Water Act (CWA, 33 Usc 1250, et seq., at 1313(d)),
requires States to identify and list waters that do not meet water quality standards after applying
certain required technology-based effluent limits (impaired water bodies). The list is known as
the Section 303(d) list of impaired waters.
The proposed project is not directly tributary to a 303(d) listed water body. The closest impaired
water body is the Buena Vista Lagoon. The Buena Vista Lagoon is 303(d) listed for degraded
benthic community and sediment toxicity.
4.0 STORM WATER BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Standard practice and State Law requires the implementation of applicable site design, source
control, project-specific, and structural treatment control BMPs.
Site Design BMPs
The following BMPs were considered in the project design process:
Reduce impervious surfaces,
Minimize directly connected areas, and
Some of the specific site design BMPs incorporated into this project include:
a) Preservation of existing drainage patterns.
Source Control BMPs
The following BMPs were considered in the project design process:
Inlet stenciling and signage,
Materials storage,
Trash storage,
Efficient irrigation, and
Integrated pest management principles.
Some of the specific source control BMPs incorporated into this project include:
Stormwater Runoff Pollution Fact Sheet
Trash enclosures will be provided for storage of trash containers
Stormwater Runoff Pollution Prevention Tips for Tenants
Efficient irrigation systems and landscape design
Annual sweeping of the rooftops before the rainy season.
-7-
Project-specific BMPs
The project will be designed to minimize the use of impervious areas to the maximum extent
practicable. Approximately 70% of the site will be pervious. Paved areas and access will meet
the minimum required ratios. Drive areas will be designed to meet the minimum width
requirements for Emergency Vehicle Access.
Structural Treatment BMPs
Target pollutants, removal efficiencies expected flows, and space availability determine
the selection of structural treatment for BMP options.. The target pollutants for.this
project are from deposition of particulates on the driveways and parking areas. Annual
sweeping of the driveways before the rainy season will help to eliminate the potential
pollutants.
5.0 PROJECT BMP PLAN IMPLEMENTATION
This section identifies the recommended BUT options that meet the applicable storm water and
water quality ordinance requirements. This includes incorporating BMPs to minimize and
mitigate for runoff contamination and volume from the site. Note .that BMPs other than those
identified in the plan may be used during final engineering.
The following sections address the use of construction- and post-construction BMPs.
Construction BMPs
During construction, BMPs such as desilting basins, silt fences, sand bags, gravel bags, and other
erosion control measures maybe employed consistent with the project's Erosion Control Plan.
Recommended Post-Construction BMP Plan Option
Since the site is geometrically constrained, it is not practical to create a detention basin near the
outfall. Long term maintenance of a detention basin would also be problematic.
Site drainage will be directed toward the Westerly boundary of the property and will then
flow Southerly to a collection basin adjoining Las Flores Drive. Storm drain water will
then drop down to street level in a 6 inch pipe and will connect to a D-25 curb outlet
where it will be conveyed by Las Flores Drive and eventually to the Buena Vista Lagoon.
The grass swale with berms will collect any debris and will provide for percolation,
filtration and adsorption of pollutants. The swale will be provided with a permanent
irrigation system.
-8-
Structural Treatment BMPs
Target pollutants, removal efficiencies expected flows, and space availability determine
the selection of structural treatment for BMP options.. The target pollutants for this
project are from deposition of particulates on the driveways and parking areas. Annual
sweeping of the driveways before the rainy season will help to eliminate the potential
pollutants.
Operation and Maintenance Plans
Long term maintenance will be the responsibility of the owners of the two parcels and
will consist of proper irrigation of the grass swale, maintaining the earthen berms and
insuring the proper growth of the 6 inch grass in the swale.
Storm Water BMP Maintenance
Post construction BMP maintenance will consist of
Paved area sweeping
Trash and debris pick-up in the swale
Professional landscape maintenance
Spill prevention and control
Hazardous waste management
Home owners educational program
APPENDIX 1
Storm Water Requirements Applicability Checklist
STORM WATER REQUIREMENTS APPLICABILITY CHECKLIST
Section 1. Permanent Storm Water BMP Requirements:
If any answers to Part A are answered "Yes," your project is subject to the "Priority Project Permanent
Storm Water BMP Requirements," and "Standard Permanent Storm Water BMP Requirements" in Section
Ill, "Permanent Storm Water BMP Selection Procedure" in the Storm Water Standards manual. If all
answers to Part A are "No," and any answers to Part B are "Yes," your project is only subject only to the
Standard Permanent Storm Water BMP Requirements. If every question in Part A and B is answered "No,"
your project is exempt from permanent storm water requirements.
Part A: Determine Priority Project Permanent Storm Water BMP Requirements.
Does the project meet the definition of one or more of the priority project categories as defined
in the Storm Water Standards (Appendix I) Yes No
"Detached residential development of 10 or more units" - if
"Attached residential development of 10 or more units" - '7
"Commercial development greater than 100,000 square feet" -
Vol
"Automotive repair shop" - '7
"Restaurant '7
"Steep hillside development greater than 5,000 square feet - I
"Project discharging to receiving waters within Water Quality Sensitive Areas" - I
"Parking lot greater than or equal to 5,000 ft or with at least 15 parking spaces, and potentially
exposed to urban runoff
- -
"Streets, roads, highways, and freeways" that would create a new paved surface that is 5,000
square feet or greater -
"Significant redevelopment over 5,000 ft if
* Refer to the definitions section In the Storm Water Standards for expanded definitions of the pnority project categories. -
Limited Exdusion: Trenching and resurfacing work associated with utility projects are not considered priority projects. Parking
lots, buildings and other structures associated with utility projects are priority projects If one or more of the criteria In Part A is met.
If all answers to Part A are "No", continue to Part B.
Part B: Determine Standard Permanent Storm Water Requirements.
Does the project propose: Yes No
New impervious areas, such as rooftops, roads, parking lots, driveways, paths and sidewalks? 7 -
New pervious landscape areas and irrigation systems? 7 -
Permanent structures within 100 feet of any natural water body?
Trash storage areas?
Liquid or solid material loading and unloading areas? - f
Vehicle or equipment fueling, washing, or maintenance areas? 7
Require a General NPDES Permit for Storm Water Discharges Associated with Industrial Activities
(Except construction)?*
Commercial or industrial waste handling or storage, excluding typical office or household waste? - .7
Any grading or ground disturbance during construction? .7 -
Any new storm drains, or alteration to existing storm drains? - .7
"To find out if your project is required to obtain an Individual General NPDES Permit for Storm Water Discharges Associated with
Industrial Activities, visit the State Water Resources Control Board web site at, www.swrcb.ca.govlstorTnwtrllndustzial.html.
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Section 2. Construction Storm Water BMP Requirements:
If the answer to question I of Part C is answered "Yes," your project is subject to Section IV, "Construction
Storm Water BMP Performance Standards," and must prepare a Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plan
(SWPPP). If the answer to question I is "No," but the answer to any of the remaining questions is "Yes,"
your project is subject to Section IV, "Construction Storm Water BMP Performance Standards," and must
prepare a Water Pollution Control Plan (WPCP). If every question in Part C is answered "No," your project is
exempt from any construction storm water BMP requirements. If any of the answers to the questions in Part
C are "Yes," complete the construction site prioritization in Part D, below.
Part C: Determine Construction Phase Storm Water Requirements.
Would the project meet any of these criteria during construction? - S Yes No
Is the project subject to California's statewide General NPDES Permit for Storm Water Discharges - -
Associated With Construction Activities?
Does the project propose grading or soil disturbance? -
Would storm water or urban runoff have the potential to contact any portion of the construction - -
area, including washing and staging areas?
Would the project use any construction materials that could negatively affect water quality if -
discharged from the site (such as, paints, solvents, concrete, and stucco)?
Part D: Determine Construction Site Priority
In accordance with the Municipal Permit, each construction site with construction storm water BMP
requirements must be designated with a prlority high, medium or low. This prioritization must be completed
with this form, noted on the plans, and included in the SWPPP orWPCP. Indicate the projects priority in
one of the cheók boxes using the criteria below, and existing and surrounding conditions of the project, the
type of activities necessary to complete the construction and any other extenuating circumstances that may
pose a threat to water quality. The City reserves the right to adjust the priority of the projects both before
and dunng construction. [Note: The construction priority does NOT change construction BMP requirements that apply to projects;
all construction BMP requirements must be identified on a case-by-case basis. The constuction priority does affect the frequency of
inspections that will be conducted by City staff. See Section W. I 1br more details on construction BMP requirements.]
o A) H,rh Priority
Projects where the site is 50 acres or more and grading will occur during the wet season
Projects 5 acres or more and tributary to an impaired water body for sediment by the most
current Clean Water Act Section 303(d) list (e.g., Penasquitos watershed)
Projects 5 acres or more within or directly adjacent to or discharging directly to a coastal
lagoon or other receiving water within an water quality sensitive area
Projects, active or inactive, adjacent or tributary to sensitive water bodies
B) Medium Priority
Capital Improvement Projects where grading occurs, however a Storm Water Pollution
Prevention Plan (SWPPP) is not required under the State General Construction Permit (i.e.,
water and sewer replacement projects, intersection and street re-alignments, widening,
comfort stations, etc.)
Permit projects in the public right-of-way where grading occurs, however SWPPPs are not
required, such as installation of sidewalk, substantial retaining walls, curb and gutter for an
entire street frontage, etc.
Permit projects on private property where grading permits are required (i.e., cuts over 5
feet, fills over 3 feet), however, Notice Of Intents (NOls) and SWPPPs are not required.
-13 -
o C) Low Priority
Capital Projects where minimal to no grading occurs, such as signal light and loop
installations, street light installations, etc.
Permit projects in the public right-of-way where minimal to no grading occurs, such as
pedestrian ramps, driveway additions, small retaining walls, etc.
Permit projects on private property where grading permits are not required, such as small
retaining walls, single-family homes, small tenant improvements, etc.
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APPENDIX 3
Urban Runoff Construction Site Inspection Record
General Information
Date: Inspector
Permit Number Project Address:
Permit Holder: Water Pollution Control Manager.
Season: Rainy Y Dry Y
Preservation of Existing Vegetati on
Is temporary fencing provided to preserve vegetation in areas where
no construction activity is planned?
Location:
Location:
Location:
Location:
Temporary Soil Stabilization
Does the applied temporary soil stabilization provide 100% coverage
for the required areas?
Are there any non-vegetated areas that may require temporary soil
stabilization?
Is the area where temporary soil stabilization required free from
visible erosion?
Location:
Location:
Location:
Location:
Temporary Linear Sediment Barriers
Are temporary linear sediment bathers properly installed in
accordance with the details, functional and maintained?
Are temporary linear sediment barriers free of accumulated litter?
Is the built-up sediment less than 1/3 the height of the barrier?
Are cross barriers installed where necessary and properly spaced?
Location:
Location:
Location:
Location:
Storm Drain Inlet Protection
Are storm drain inlets internal to the project properly protected with
either Type 1, 2, or 3 inlet protection?
Are storm drain inlet protection devices in working order and being
properly maintained?
Location:
Location:
Location:
Location:
Desilting Basins..
Are basins maintained to provide the required retention/detention?
Are basin controls (inlets, outlets, diversion, weirs, spillways, and
racks) in working order?
Location:
Location:
Location:
Location:
Stockpiles
Arc all locations of temporary stockpiles, including soil, hazardous
waste, and construction materials in approved areas?
Are stockpiles protected from run-on, run-off from adjacent areas
and from winds?
Are stockpiles located at least 15 in from concentrated flows,
downstream drainage courses and storm drain inlets?
Are required covers and/or perimeter controls in place?
Location:
Location:
Location:
Location:
Concentrated Flows
Are concentrated flow paths free of visible erosion?
Location:
Location:
Location:
Location
Tracking Control
Are points of ingress/egress to public/private properly stabilized?
Is evidence of significant tracking visible outside of project
boundaries?
Location:
Location:
Location:
Location:
Wind Erosion Control
Is dust control implemented in conformance with standard?
C
Location:
Dewatering Operations
Is dewatering handled in conformance with the dewatering permit
issued by the RWQCB?
Is required treatment provided for dewatering effluent?
Location:
Location:
Vehicle & Equipment Fueling, Cleaning and
Maintenance
Are vehicle and equipment fueling, cleaning and maintenance area
reasonably clean and free of spills, leaks, or any other deleterious
material?
Are vehicle and equipment fueling, cleaning and maintenance
activities performed on an impermeable surface in dedicated areas?
If no, are drip pans used?
Are dedicated fueling, cleaning, and maintenance areas Located at
least 15 ci away from downstream drainage facilities and water
courses and protected frornm run-on and nmoff?
Is wash water contained for infiltration/evaporation
Is on-site cleaning limited to washing with water only?
On each day of use, are vehicles and equipment inspected for leaks
and if necessary repaired?
Location:
Location:
Location:
Location:
Waste Management & Materials Pollution Control
__
Are material storage area and washout areas protected from run-on
and runoff, and located at least 15 m from concentrated flows and
downstream drainage facilities?
Are all material handling and storage areas clean; organized; free of
spills, leaks, or any other deleterious material; and stocked with
appropriate clean-up supplies?
Are liquid materials, hazardous materials, and hazardous wastes
stored in temporary containment facilities?
Are bagged and boxed materials stored on panels?
Are hazardous materials and wastes stored in appropriate labeled
containers?
Are proper storage, clean-up, and spill-reporting procedures for
hazardous materials and wastes posted in open, conspicuous and
accessible locations adjacent to storage areas?
Are temporary containment facilities free of spills and rainwater?
Are temporary containment facilities and bagged/boxed materials
covered?
Are temporary concrete washout facilities designated and being
used?.
Are temporary concrete washout facilities functional for receiving
and containing concrete waste and are concrete residues prevented
from entering the drainage system?
Do temporary concrete washout facilities provide sufficient volume
and freeboard for planned concrete operations?.
Are concrete wastes, including residues from cutting and grinding,
contained and disposed of off-site or in concrete washout facilities?
Are spills from mobile equipment fueling and maintenance properly
contained and cleaned up?
Is the site frecoffitter?
Are trash receptacles provided in the Contractor's yard, field, frailer
areas, and at locations where workers congregate for lunch and break
periods?
Are waste management receptacles filled at or beyond capacity?
Illicit Connection/illegal Discharge Detection and
Reporting
Is there any evidence of illicit discharges or illegal dumping on the
project site?
If yes, has code enforcement been notified?
Location:
Discharge Points
Are discharge points and discharge flows free from noticeable
pollutants?
Are discharge points free of any significant erosion or sediment
transport?
Location:
Location:
Location:
Location:
SWPPP Update
Do the SWPPP and Project Schedule adequately reflect the current
site conditions and contractor operations?
Are all BMPs shown on the erosion control plan installed in the
proper locations and according to the details of the plan?
General
Are there any other potential water pollution control concerns at the
site?
Comments:
Enforcement Actions Taken:
!nspeàtor's Signature Date
Water Pollution Control Manger's Signature Date
APPENDIX 4
Storm Water Fact Sheet (Vegetated Swale)
17
United States Office of Water 832-F-99-006
Environmental Protection Washington, D.C. September 1999
Agency
9EPA Storm Water
Technology Fact Sheet
Vegetated Swales
DESCRIPTION
A vegetated swale is a broad, shallow channel with
a dense stand of vegetation covering the side slopes
and bottom. Swales can be natural or manmade,
and are designed to trap particulate pollutants
(suspended solids and trace metals), promote
infiltration, and reduce the flow velocity of storm
water runoff. A typical design is shown in Figure!.
Vegetated swales can serve as part of a storm water
drainage system and can replace curbs, gutters and
storm sewer systems. Therefore, swales are best
suited for residential, industrial, and commercial
areas with low flow and smaller populations.
APPLICABILITY
Vegetated swales can be used wherever the local
climate and soils permit the establishment and
maintenance of a dense vegetative cover. The
feasibility of installing a vegetated swale at a
L
Provide for scour (a) Cross section of swat. with check data.
protection.
Notation:
L a Length of Swale Impoundment area p., check dam (ft) (b) Dimensional view of Swale impoundment area. Ds • Depth of check dam (ft) -
S5 = Bottom sipe of swat. (ftlft)
W = Top widthof check dam (ft)
We = Bottom width of check dam (ft)
Ratio of horizontal to vertical change in swate aid, slope (tUft)
Source: NVPDC, 1996.
FIGURE 1 EXAMPLE OF A VEGETATED SWALE
particular site depends on the area, slope, and
perviousness of the contributing watershed, as well
as the dimensions, slope, and vegetative covering
employed in the swale system.
Vegetated swales are easy to design and can be
incorporated into a site drainage plan. While
swales are generally used as a stand-alone storm
water Best Management Practice (BMP), they are
most effective when used in conjunction with other
BMPs, such as wet ponds, infiltration strips,
wetlands, etc.
While vegetated swales have been widely used as
storm water BMPs, there are also certain aspects of
vegetated swales that have yet to be quantified.
Some of the issues being investigated are whether
their pollutant removal rates decline with age, what
effect the slope has on the filtration capacity of
vegetation, the benefits of check darns, and the
degree to which design factors can enhance the
effectiveness of pollutant removal.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Swales typically have several advantages over
conventional storm water management practice,
such as storm sewer systems, including the
reduction of peak flows; the removal of pollutants,
the promotion of runoff infiltration, and lower
capital costs. However, vegetated swales are
typically ineffective in, and vulnerable to, large
storms, because high-velocity flows can erode the
vegetated cover.
Limitations of vegetated swales include the
following:
They are impractical in areas with very flat
grades, steep topography, or wet or poorly
drained soils.
They are not effective and may even erode
when flow volumes and/or velocities are
high.
They can become drowning hazards,
mosquito breeding areas, and may emit
odors.
Land may not be available for them.
In some places, their use is restricted by
law: many local municipalities prohibit
vegetated swales if peak discharges exceed
140 liters per second (five cubic feet per
second) or if flow velocities are greater than
1 meter per second (three feet per second).
They are impractical in areas with erosive
soils or where a dense vegetative cover is
difficult to maintain.
Negative environmental impacts of vegetated
swales may include:
Leaching from swale vegetation may
increase the presence of trace metals and
nutrients in the runoff.
Infiltration through the swale may carry
pollutants into local groundwater.
Standing water in vegetated swales can
result in potential safety, odor, and
mosquito problems.
DESIGN CRITERIA
Design criteria for implementation of the vegetated
swales are as follows:
Location
Vegetated swales are typically located along
property boundaries along a natural grade, although
they can be used effectively wherever the site
provides adequate space. Swales can be used in
place of curbs and gutters along parking lots.
Soil Requirements
Vegetated swales should not be constructed in
gravelly and coarse sandy soils that cannot easily
support dense vegetation. If available, alkaline
soils and subsoils should be used to promote the
removal and retention of metals. Soil infiltration
rates should be greater than 0.2 millimeters per
second (one-half inch per hour); therefore, care
must be taken to avoid compacting the soil during
construction.
Vegetation
A fine, close-growing, water-resistant grass should
be selected for use in vegetated swales, because
increasing the surface area of the vegetation
exposed to the runoff improves the effectiveness of
the swale system. Pollutant removal efficiencies
vary greatly depending on the specific plants
involved, so the vegetation should be selected with
pollution control objectives in mind. In addition,
care should be taken to choose plants that will be
able to thrive at the site. Examples of vegetation
appropriate for swales include reed canary grass,
grass-legume mixtures, and red fescue.
General Channel Configuration
A parabolic or trapezoidal cross-section with side
slopes no steeper than 1:3 is recommended to
maximize the wetted channel perimeter of the
swale. Recommendations for longitudinal channel
slopes vary within the existing literature. For
example, Schueler (1987) recommends a vegetated
swale slope as close to zero as drainage permits.
The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (1991)
recommends that the channel slope be less than 2
percent. The Storm Water Management Manual for
the Puget Sound Basin (1992) specifies channel
slopes between 2 and 4 percent. This manual
indicates that slopes of less than 2 percent can be
used if drain tile is incorporated into the design,
while slopes greater than 4 percent can be used if
check dams are placed in the channel to reduce flow
velocity.
Flows
A typical design storm used for sizing swales is a
six-month frequency, 24-hour storm event. The
exact intensity of this storm must be determined for
your location and is generally available from the
U.S. Geological Survey. Swales are generally not
used where the maximum flow rate exceeds 140
liters/second (5 cubic feet per second).
Sizing Procedures
The width of the swale can be calculated using
various forms of the Manning equation. However,
this methodology can be simplified to the following
rule of thumb: the total surface area of the swale
should be one percent of the area (500 square feet
for each acre) that drains to the swale.
Unless a bypass is provided, the swale must be
sized both to treat the design flows and to pass the
peak hydraulic flows. However, for the swale to
treat runoff most effectively, the depth of the storm
water should not exceed the height of the grass.
Construction
The subsurface of the swale should be carefully
constructed to avoid compaction of the soil.
Compacted soil reduces infiltration and inhibits
growth of the grass. Damaged areas should be
restored immediately to ensure that the desired level
of treatment is maintained and to prevent further
damage from erosion of exposed soil.
Check Dams
Check dams can be installed in swales to promote
additional infiltration, to increase storage, and to
reduce flow velocities. Earthen check dams are not
recommended because of their potential to erode.
Check dams should be installed every 17 meters (50
feet) lithe longitudinal slope exceeds 4 percent.
PERFORMANCE
The literature suggests that vegetated swales
represent a practical and potentially effective
technique for controlling urban runoff quality.
While limited quantitative performance data exists
for vegetated swales, it is known that check dams,
slight slopes, permeable soils, dense grass cover,
increased contact time, and small storm events all
contribute to successful pollutant removal by the
swale system. Factors decreasing the effectiveness
of swales include compacted soils, short runoff
contact time, large storm events, frozen ground,
short grass heights, steep slopes, and high runoff
velocities and discharge rates.
Conventional vegetated swale designs have
achieved mixed results in removing particulate
pollutants. A study performed by the Nationwide
Urban Runoff Program (NTJRP) monitored three
grass swales in the Washington, D.C., area and
found no significant improvement in urban runoff
quality for the pollutants analyzed. However, the
weak performance of these swales was attributed to
the high flow velocities in the swales, soil
compaction, steep slopes, and short grass height.
Another project in Durham, NC, monitored the
performance of a carefully designed artificial swale
that received runoff from a commercial parking lot.
The project tracked 11 storms and concluded that
particulate concentrations of heavy metals (Cu, Pb,
Zn, and Cd) were reduced by approximately 50
percent. However, the swale proved largely
ineffective for removing soluble nutrients. A
conservative estimate would say that a properly
designed vegetated swale may achieve a 25 to 50
percent reduction in particulate pollutants,
including sediment and sediment-attached
phosphorus, metals, and bacteria. Lower removal
rates (less than 10 percent) can be expected for
dissolved pollutants, such as soluble phosphorus,
nitrate, and chloride. Table 1 summarizes some
pollutant removal efficiencies for vegetated swales.
The effectiveness of vegetated swales can be
enhanced by adding check dams at approximately
17 meter (50 foot) increments along their length
(See Figure 1). These dams maximize the retention
time within the swale, decrease flow velocities, and
promote particulate settling. Structures to skim off
floating debris may also be added to the swales.
Finally, the incorporation of vegetated filter strips
parallel to the top of the channel banks can help to
treat sheet flows entering the swale.
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
The useful life of a vegetated swale system is
directly proportional to its maintenance frequency.
If properly designed and regularly maintained,
vegetated swales can last indefinitely.
The maintenance objectives for vegetated swale
systems include keeping up the hydraulic and
removal efficiency of the channel and maintaining
a dense, healthy grass cover. Maintenance activities
TABLE I EFFECTIVENESS OF DESIGN
SWALES
Pollutant Median % Removal
Total Suspended
Solids
81
Oxygen Demanding
Substances
67
Nitrate 38
Total Phosphorus 9
Hydrocarbons 62
Cadmium 42
Copper 51
Lead 67
Zinc 71
should include periodic mowing grass never
cut shorter than the design flow depth), weed
control, watering during drought conditions,
reseeding of bare areas, and clearing of debrisand
blockages. Cuttings should be removed from the
channel and disposed in a local composting facility.
Accumulated sediment should also be removed
manually to avoid the transport of resuspended
sediments in periods of low flow and to prevent a
damming effect from sand bars. The application of
fertilizers and pesticides should be minimal.
Another aspect of a good maintenance plan is
repairing damaged areas within a channel. For
example, if the channel develops ruts or holes, it
should be repaired utilizing a suitable soil that is
properly tamped and seeded. The grass cover
should be thick, if it is not, reseed as necessary.
Any standing water removed during the
maintenance operation must be disposed to a
sanitary sewer at an approved discharge location.
Residuals (e.g., silt, grass cuttings) must be
disposed in accordance with local or State
requirements.
COSTS
Vegetated swales typically cost less to construct
than curbs and gutters or underground storm
sewers. Schueler (1987) reported that costs may 6. U.S. EPA, 1992. Storm Water Management
vary from $16-$30 per linear meter ($4.90 to $9.00 for Industrial Activities: Developing
per linear foot) for a 4.5 meter (15-foot) wide Pollution Prevention Plans and Best
channel (top width). ManagementPractices. EPA 832-R92-006,
U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C.
The Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning
Commission (SEWRPC, 199 1) reported that costs
may vary from $28 to $164 per linear meter ($8.50
to $50.00 per linear foot) depending upon swale
depth and bottom width. These cost estimates are
higher than other published estimates because they
include the cost of activities (such as clearing,
grubbing, leveling, filling, and sodding) that may
not be included in other published estimates.
Construction costs depend on specific site
considerations and local costs for labor and
materials. Table 2 shows the estimated capital
costs of a vegetated swale.
Annual costs for maintaining vegetated swales are
approximately $1.90 per linear meter ($0.58 per
linear foot) for a 0.5 meter (l.5 -foot) deep channel,
according to SEWRPC (1991). Average annual
operating and maintenance costs of vegetated
swales can be estimated using Table 3.
REFERENCES
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency.
1991. Protecting Water Quality in Urban
Areas.
Schueler, T. R., 1987. Controlling Urban
Runoff. A Practical Manual for Planning
and Designing Urban BMPs.
Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning
Commission, 1991. Cost of Urban
Nonpoint Source Water Pollution Contol
Measures, Technical Report No. 31.
7. Washington State Department of Ecology.
February, 1992. Storm Water Manual for
the Puget Sound Basin.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Center for Watershed Protection
Tom Schueler
8391 Main Street
Ellicott City, MD 21043
City of Durham, North Carolina
Paul Wiebke
Storm Water Department
101 City Hall Plaza
Durham, NC 27701
State of Minnesota
Lou Flynn
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
520 Lafyette Road North
St. Paul, MN 55155
State of Oregon
Dennis Jurries
Oregon Department of Environmental Quality,
Northwest Region
2020 Southwest 4th Avenue, Suite 400
Portland, OR 97201
Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning
Commission
Bob Biebel
916 N. East Avenue, P.O. Box 1607
Waukesha, WI 53187
U.S. EPA, 1983. Results ofthe Nationwide
Urban RunoffProgram. NTIS PD# 84-18- Washington State Department of Ecology
5545. Stan Ciuba
Stormwater Unit
U.S. EPA, 1991. A Current Assessment of P.O . Box 47696
Best ManagementPractices: Techniquesfor Olympia, WA 98504
Reducing Nonpoint Source Pollution in the
Coastal Zone.
TABLE 2 ESTIMATED CAPITAL COST OF A1.5- FOOT DEEP, 10-FOOT-WIDE GRASSED SWALES
Unit Cost Total Cost
Low Moderate High Low Moderate High Component Unit Extent
Mobilization! Swale I $107 $274 $441 $107 $274 $441
Demobilization-Light
Site Preparation Ciealingb Acre 0.5 $2,200 $3,800 $5,400 $1,100 $1,900 $2,700
Acre 0.25 $3,800 $5,200 $8,600 $9501 $1,300 $1,650 General Excavabond Yd3 372 $2.10 $3.70 $5.30 $781 $1,376 $1,972
Level and Till' Yd2 1,210 $0.20 $0.35 $0.50 $242 $424 $605
Sites Development
Salvaged Topsoil
Seed, and Mulch'. Yd2 1,210 $0.40 $1.00 $1.60 $484 $1,210 $1,936
Sod' Yd2 1,210 $1.20 $2.40 $3.60 $1,452 $2,904 $4,356
Subtotal - - - - - $5,116 $9,388 $13,660
Contingencies Swale 1 25% 25% 25% $1,279 $2,347 $3,415
Total -- - - - - $6,395 $11,735 $17,075
Source: (SEWRPC, 1991)
Note: Mobilization/demobilization refers to the organization and planning involved in establishing a vegetative swab.
Swale has a bottom width of 1.0 foot a top width of 10 feet with 1:3 side slopes, and a 1,000-foot length.
1) Area cleared = (top width + 10 feet) x swale length.
°Area grubbed = (top width x swale length).
dvolume excavated = (0.67 x top width x swale depth) x swalb length (parabolic cross-section).
Area Had = (top width + 8(swaie depth x swale length (parabolic cross-section).
3(top width)
Area seeded = area deared x 0.5.
0 Area sodded = area deared x 0.5.
TABLE 3 ESTIMATED OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE COSTS
Swale Size
(Depth and Top Width)
1.5 Foot Depth, One- 3-Foot Depth, 3-Foot Component Unit Cost Comment
Foot Bottom Width, Bottom Width, 21-Foot
10-Foot Top Width Top Width
Lawn Mowing $0.85 /1.000 ft2/ mowing $0.14 /linear foot $0.21 /linear foot Lawn maintenance area=(top
width + 10 feet) x length. Mow
eight times per year
General Lawn Care $9.00 /1.000 ft/ year $0.18 /linear foot $0.28 /linear foot Lawn maintenance area = (top
width + 10 feet) x length
Swale Debsis and Litter $0.10 / linear foot / year $0.10 I linear foot $0.10 I linear. foot -
Removal
Grass Reseeding with $0.30 / yd2 $0.01 I linear foot $0.01 /linear foot Area revegetated equals 1% Mulch and Fertilizer of lawn maintenance area per
year
Program Administration and $0.15 I linear foot! year, $0.15 / linear foot $0.15 /linear foot Inspect four times per year Swale inspection plus $25 / Inspection
Total -- $0.58 /linear foot $ 0.75 / linear foot --
source: swPKc, 1991.
The mention of trade names or commercial products does not
constitute endorsement or recommendation for the use by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. For more information contact
Municipal Technology Branch
U.S. EPA
Mail Code 4204
401 M St, S.W.
Washington, DC, 20460
MTB
Excde I, complance voi4I opMW tedyk
-b MUNICIPAL TECHNOLOGY DEAN H
APPENDIX 5
Misc. Data
18
YEL L 0 WJA CKE TS A ND O THER
SOCIAL WASPS
Integrated Pest Management in and around the Home
Only a few of the very large number of
wasp species in California live a social
life; these species are referred to as
social wasps. Some social wasps are
predators for most or all of the year
and provide a great benefit by killing
large numbers of plant-feeding insects
and nuisance flies; others are exclu-
sively scavengers. Wasps become a
problem only when they threaten to
sting humans. One of the most trouble-
some of the social wasps is the yellow-
jacket. Yellowjackets, especially
ground- and cavity-nesting ones such
as the western yellowjacket (Fig. 1),
tend to defend their nests vigorously
when disturbed. Defensive behavior
increases as the season progresses and
colony populations become larger
while food becomes scarcer. In fall,
foraging yellowjackets are primarily
scavengers and they start to show up
at picnics, barbecues, around garbage
cans, at dishes of dog or cat food
placed outside, and where ripe or over-
ripe fruit are accessible. At certain
times and places, the number of scav-
enger wasps can be quite large.
IDENTIFICATION AND
LIFE CYCLE
In western states there are two distinct
types of social wasps: yeflowjackels
and paper wasps. Yellowjackets are by
far the most troublesome group. Paper
wasps are much less defensive and
rarely sting humans. They lend to shy
away from human activity except
when their nests are located near
doors, windows, or other high traffic
areas.
Nests of both yellowjacket and paper
wasps typically are begun in spring by
a single queen who overwinters and
becomes active when the weather
warms. She emerges in late winter/
early spring to feed and start a new
nest. From spring to midsu.mmcr nests
are in the growth phase, and the larvae
require large amounts of protein.
Workers forage mainly for protein at
this time (usually in the form of other
insects) and for some sugars. By late
summer, however, the colonies grow
more slowly or cease growth and re-
quire large amounts of sugar to main-
tain the queen and workers. So
foraging wasps are particularly inter-
ested in sweet things at this time.
Normally, yellowjacket and paper
wasp colonies only live one season. In
very mild winters or in coastal Califor-
nia south of San Francisco, however,
some yellowjacket colonies survive for
several years and become quite large.
Yellowjackets
The term yellowjacket refers to a num-
ber of different species of wasps in the
genera Vespula and Dolkhovcspula
(family Vespidae). Included in this
group of ground-nesting species are
the western yellowjacket. Vespula
ptn.yhianica, which is the most com-
monly encountered species and is
sometimes called the 'meat bee." and
seven other species of Vespula. Vcspula
;'ulgarrs is common in rotted tree
stumps at higher elevations and V.
çcrinanica (the German ye)lowjacket) is
becoming more common in many ur-
ban areas of California, where it fre-
quently nests in houses. These wasps
tend to be medium sized and black
with jagged bands of bright yellow (or
white in the case of the aerial-nesting
Figure 3. Western yellowjacket.
Dolicho7.lespula 1=Vespulol maculate) on
the abdomen, and have a very short,
narrow waist (the area where the tho-
rax attaches to the abdomen).
Nests are commonly built in rodent
burrows, but other protected cavities,
like voids in walls and ceilings of
houses, sometimes are selected as nest-
ing sites. Colonies, which are begun
each spring by a single reproductive
female, can reach populations of be-
tween 1,500 and 15,000 individuals,
depending on the species. The wasps
build a nest of paper made from fibers
scraped from wood mixed with saliva.
It is built as multiple tiers of vertical
cells, similar to nests of paper wasps,
but enclosed by a paper envelope
around the outside that usually con-
tains a single entrance hole (Fig. 2). If
the rodent hole is not spacious
enough, yellowjackets will increase the
size by moistening the soil and dig-
ging. Similar behavior inside a house
-'EST OTES Publication 7450
University of California
Agriculture and Natural Resources Revised August 2001
August 2001 YeHowjackets and Other Social Wasps
Figure 2. Yellowjacket nest in spring
(top), summer (center), and early fall
(bottom).
sometimes leads to a wet patch that
develops into a hole in a wall or
ceiling.
Immature yellowjackets are white,
grublike larvae that become white pu-
pae. The pupae develop adult coloring
just before they emerge as adult wasps.
linmatures are not normally seen un-
less the nest is torn open or a sudden
loss of adult caretakers leads to an
exodus of starving larvae.
Aerial-nesting yellowjackets. Dclicho-
vespula arrnnria and D. ,nnculola, build
paper nests that are attached to the
eaves of a building or are hanging from
the limb of a tree. lhe entrance is nor-
mally a hole at the bottom of the nest.
These aerial neslers do not become
scavengers at the end of the season, but
they are extremely defensive when
their nests are disturbed. Defending D.
arenaria sometimes bite and/or sting,
simultaneously. Wasp stingers have no
barbs and can be used repeatedly, es-
pecially when the wasp gets inside
clothing. As with any stinging incident,
it is best to leave the area of the nest
site as quickly as possible if wasps start
stinging.
Paper Wasps
Paper wasps such as Polistesfuscalus
aurftr, P. rpochus. and P. dorninuliis are
large (1 inch long), slender wasps with
long legs and a distinct, slender waist
(Fig. 3). Background colors vary, but
most western species tend to be golden
brown, or darker, with large patches of
yellow or red. Preferring to live in or
near orchards or vineyards, they hang
their paper nests in protected areas,
such as under caves, in attics, or under
tree branches or vines. Each nest hangs
like an open umbrella from a pedicel
(stalk) and has open cells that can be
seen from beneath the nest (Fig. 4).
White, legless, grublike larvae some-
times can be seen from below. Paper
wasp nests rarely exceed the size of an
outstretched hand and populations
vary between 15 to 200 individuals.
Most species are relatively unaggres-
sive, but they can be a problem when
they nest over doorways or in other
areas of human activity, such as fruit
trees
Mud Daubers
Mud daubers are black and yellow.
thread-waisted, solitary wasps that
build a hard mud nest, usually on ceil-
ings and walls, attended by a single
female wasp. They belong to the family
Sphecidae and are not social wasps but
may be confused with them. They do
not defend their nests and rarely sting.
During winter, you can safely remove
the nests without spraying.
INJURY OR DAMAGE
Concern about yellowjackels is based
on their persistent, pugnacious behav-
ior around food sources and their ag-
gressive colony defense. Stinging
behavior is usually encountered at
nesting sites, but scavenging
yel)owjaekets sometimes will sting if
someone tries to swat them away from
a potential food source. When scaveng-
ing at picnics or other outdoor meals.
Figure 3. Paper wasp.
Figure 4. Paper wasp nest.
wasps will crawl into soda cans and
cause stings on the lips, or inside the
mouth or throat.
Responses to wasp stings vary from
only short-term, intense sensations to
substantial swelling and tenderness,
some itching, or life-threatening aller-
gic responses. All these reactions are
discussed in detail in Pest Noses: Bce
and Wasp Slings (see "References"). Of
specific concern is a condition that
results from multiple-sting encounters,
sometimes unfamiliar to attending
health professionals, that is induced by
the volume of foreign protein injected
and the tissue damage caused by de-
structive enzymes in wasp venom. Red
blood cells and other tissues in the
body become damaged; tissue debris
and other breakdown products are
carried to the kidneys, lobe eliminated
from the body. Too much debris and
waste products can cause blockages in
the kidney.c, resulting in renal insuffi-
*2*
August 2001 Yellowjackets and Other Social Wasps
crency or renal failure. Patients in this
condition require medical intervention,
even dialysis.
MANAGEMENT
Most social wasps provide an ex-
tremely beneficial service by eliminat-
ing large numbers of other pest insects
through predation and should be pro-
tected and encouraged to nest in areas
of little human or animal activity. Al-
though many animals prey on social
wasps (including birds, reptiles, am-
phibians, skunks, bears, raccoons, spi-
ders, preying mantids, and bald-faced
hornets), none provides satisfactory
biological control in home situations.
The best way to prevent unpleasant
encounters with social wasps is to
avoid them. If you know where they
are try not to go near their nesting
places. Wasps can become very defen-
sive when their nest is disturbed. Be on
the lookout for nests when outdoors.
Wasps that are flying directly in and
out of a single location are probably
flying to and from their nest.
Scavenging wasps will not usually
become a problem if there is no food
around to attract them. When nuisance
wasps are present in the outdoor envi-
ronment, keep foods (including pet
food) and drinks covered or inside the
house and keep garbage in tightly
sealed garbage cans. Once food is dis-
covered by wasps, they will continue
to hunt around that location long after
the source has been removed.
If wasp nests must be eliminated, it is
easiest and safest to call for profes-
sional help. In some areas of California,
personnel from a local.Mosquito and
Vector Control District may be avail-
able to remove nests. To determine if
this service is available in your area,
call the California Mosquito and Vector
Control Association at (916)440-0826.
If a rapid solution to a severe yellow-
jacket problem is essential, seek the
assistance of a professional pest control
operator who can use micloencapsu-
lated baits to control these pests. Do-
it-yourself options include trapping
wasps in a baited trap designed for
that purpose, early-season removal of
nests, or spraying the nest or nesting
site with an insecticide labeled for that
use.
Trapping Wasps
Trapping wasps is an ongoing effort
that needs to be initiated in spring and
continued into summer and fall, espe-
cially when the ycllowjacket popula-
tion was large the previous year. In
spring there is a 30- to 45-day period
when new queens first emerge before
they build nests. Trapping queens dur-
ing this period has the potential to
provide an overall reduction in the
yellowjacket population for the season,
and a study is currently underway to
test this theory in some California Mos-
quito and Vector Control districts (see
"Online References"). The more traps
put out in spring on an area-wide basis
to trap queens, the greater the likeli-
hoàd of reducing nests later in the
summer. Usually one trap per acre is
adequati in spring for depletion trap-
ping of queens; in fall, more traps may
be necessary to trap scavenging wasps,
depending on the size of the popula-
tion. There are two types of wasp
traps: lure and water traps.
Lure Traps. Lure traps are available for
purchase at many retail stores that sell
pest control supplies and are easiest to
use. They work best as queen traps in
late winter and spring. In summer and
fall they may assist in reducing local-
ized foraging workers, but they do not
eliminate large populations. Lure traps
contain a chemical that attracts yellow-
jackets into the traps, but common
lures such as heptyl butyrate are not
equally attractive to all species. Pro-
teins such as lunchmeat can be added
as an attractant and are believed to
improve catches.
During spring, baited lure traps should
have the chemical bait changed every 6
to 8 weeks. In summer, change the bait
every 2 to 4 weeks; change bait more
frequently when temperatures are
high. Meats must he replaced more
frequently because yefluwjackets are
not attracted to rutting meat. Also,
periodically check the trap to remove
trapped yellowjackets and make sure
workers are still attracted to the trap.
Water Traps. Water traps are generally
homemade and consist of a 5-gallon
bucket, string, and protein bait (turkey
ham, fish, or liver works well; do not
use cat food because it may repel the
yellowjackets after a few days). The
bucket is filled with soapy water and
the protein bait is suspended I to 2
inches above the water. (The use of a
wide mesh screen over the bucket will
help prevent other animals from reach-
ing and consuming the bait.) After the
yeliowjackrt removes the protein, it
His down and becomes trapped in the
water and drowns. Like the lure trap,
these traps also work best as queen
traps in late winter to early spring. In
summer and (all they may assist in
reducing localized foraging workers
but usually not to acceptable levels.
Place them away from patio or picnic
areas so wasps aren't attracted to your
food as-well.
Discoura;ing or
Eliminating Nests
Early in the season, knocking down
newly started paper wasp nests will
simply cause the founding female to go
elsewhere to start again or to join a
neighboring nest as a worker. As there
is little activity around wasp nests
when they are first starting, they are
very hard to find. Wasps are more
likely to be noticed later after nests and
populations grow. Nest removal for
controlling subterranean or cavity-
dwelling yellowjackets is not practical
because the nests are underground or
otherwise inaccessible.
Nest Sprays
Aerosol formulations of insecticides on
the market labeled for use on wasp and
hornet nests can be effective against
both yellowjackets and paper wasps,
but they must be used with extreme
Caution. Wasps will attack applicators
when sensing a poison applied to their
nests, and even the freeze-type prod-
.3*
August 2001 Yellowjackets and Other Social Wasps
ucts are not guaranteed to stop all
wasps that come flying out. It is pru-
dent to wear protective clothing that
covers the whole body, including
gloves and a veil over the face. In addi-
tion, you need to wear protective
eyewear and other clothing to protect
yourself from pesticide hazards. Wasps
are most likely to be in the nest at
night. But even after dark and using
formulations that shoot an insecticide
stream up to 20 feet, stinging incidents
are likely. Underground nests can be
quite a distance from the visible en-
trance and the spray may not get back
far enough to hit the wasps. Partially
intoxicated, agitated wasps are likely
lobe encountered at some distance
from the nest entrance, even on the day
following an insecticidal treatment.
Hiring a pest control professional will
reduce risks to you and your family; in
some areas of California, this service
may be available through your local
Mosquito and Vector Control District.
REFERENCES
Akre, R. D., A. Green,). F. MacDonald,
P. J. Landolt, and H. C. Davis. 3981.
The Yellowjackts of America North of
Mexico. USDA Agric Handbook No.
552.102 pp.
Ebeling, W. 1975. Urban Entomology.
Oakland: Univ. Calif. Agric. Not. Sd.
Mussen, E. Feb 1998. Pest Notes: Bez and
Wasp Stings. Oakland: Univ. Calif.
Agnc. Nat. Res. Publ. 7449. Also avail-
able online at www.ipcn.ucdavis.edu/
FMG/selectnewpest.}tomeJitml
Online References
California Mosquito and Vector Control
Web site (www.sac-yolomvcd.com) for
information on ydllowjacket control
For more information contact the University
of California Cooperative Extension or agri-
cultural commissioner's office in your coun-
ty. See your phone book for addresses and
phone numbers.
AUTHOR: E. Mussen
EDITOR: B. Ohiendoti
TECHNICAL EDITOft M. L Flint
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: M. Brush
ILLUSTRATIONS: Fig. 1: Courtesy of U.S.
Public Health Service; Fig. 2: A. L. Antonel-
L Modified after Washington State Universi-
ty Bulletin EB 0643. Yeflotrackefs and
Paper Wasps. Figs. 3 and 4:0. Kidd.
Produced by IPM Education and Publica-
tions. UC Statewide IPM Project, University
of California. Davis. CA 95616-8620
This Pest Note is available on the World
Wide Web (http:ilwww.ipm.ucdavis.edu)
JCA
UC4'IPM RWWD
11 1--1
This publication has been anonymously peer
reviewed for technical accuracy by University of
California scientists and other qualified profes-
sionals. This review process was managed by the
P.NR Associate Editor for Pest Management.
To simplify information, trade names of products
have been used. Nuendorsenientof named products
is intended. nor is criticism implied of similar products
that are not mentioned.
This material is partially based upon work
rJppOr1edby the Extension Service. U.S. Deportment
of Agriculture, under special project Section 3(d).
Integrated P.t M:rnagement.
WARNING ON THE USE OF CHEMICALS
Peslicides are poisonous. Always read and carefutlyfollow all precautions and safety recommendations
given on the container label. Store allcher.4 hi the originallabeted containe sinatodied cabinet or sired.
away from food or feeds, and out of the read, of children. Ui i,horaed persons, pets, and livestock.
Confine chemicals to the property being treated. Avoid drift onto n&ghborirg properties. especially
gardens containing fruits or vegetables ready to be picked.
Do not place containers containing pesticide in the bash nor pow pesticides down sink or toilet. Either
use the pesticide according to the label or take unwanted pesticides to a Household Hazardous Waste
Collection site. Contact your county agricultural commissioner toy additional information on safe container
disposal and For the location of the Household Hazardous Waste Collection site nearest you. Dispose of
empty containers by following label directions. Never reuse or bunt the containers or dispose of them in such
a manner that they may contaminate water supplies or natural waterways.
The University of California .ibits discrimination against or harassment of any person employed by or
seeking employment with the University on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sea, physical
or incitial disability, medical condition (cancer4ebted or genetic characteristics), ancestry, marital status,
age. sexual orientation, citizenship, or status as a covered veteran (special disabled veteran. Vietnam-era
veteran, or any other veteran who served on active duty during away or 'era campaign or expedition (or which
a campaign badge has been authorized). University policy is 'intended to be consistent with the provisions
of applicable Slate and Federal laws. inquiries regarding the University's nondiscrimination policies may be
directed to the Affirmative ActionStaff Personnel Services Director. University of California. Agriculture and
Natural Resources, 300 Lakeside Dr., Oakland. CA 94612.3350: (510) 987-0096.
*4*
WHITEFLIES
Integrated Pest Management for Home Gardeners and Professional Landscapers
Whiteflies are tiny, sap-sucking insects
that are frequently abundant in veg-
etable and ornamental plantings. They
excrete sticky honeydew and cause
yellowing or death of leaves. Out-
breaks often occur when the natural
biological control is disrupted. Man-
agement is difficult.
IDENTIFICATION AND
LIFE CYCLE
Whitellies usually occur in groups on
the undersides of leaves. They derive
their name from the mealy, white wax
covering the adult's wings and body.
Adults are tiny insects with yellowish
bodies and whitish wings. Although
adults of some species have distinctive
wing markings, many species are most
readily distinguished in the last
nymphal (immature) stage, which is
wingless (Table 1).
eggs
adult
size)
irlstar
riy,Vho-*~
fourth
third instar nymph
I seoond kstar J .0. flylTiph
Whiteflies develop rapidly in warm
weather, and populations can build up
quickly in situations where natural
enemies are destroyed and weather is
favorable. Most whiteflies, especially
the most common pest species--green-
house whitefly (Tnaieurodes
vnpoTarlorum) and silvcnleaf or
sweepotato whiteflics (&misia spe-
cies)—have a wide host range that
includes many weeds and crops. In
many parts of California, they breed all
year, moving from one host to another
as plants are harvested or dry up.
Whiteflics normally lay their tiny, ob-
long eggs on the undersides of leaves.
The eggs hatch, and the young white-
flies gradually increase in size through
four nymphal stages called instars (Pig.
1). The first nymphal stage (crawler) is
Figure 1. Greenhouse whitefly life cycle.
barely. visible even with a hand lens.
The crawlers move around for several
hours, then settle and remain immo-
bile. Later nymphal .stages are oval and
flattened like small scale insects. The
legs and antennae are greatly reduced,
and older nymphs do not move. The
winged adult emerges from the last
nymphal stage (for convenience some-
times called a pupa). All stages feed by
sucking plant juices from leaves and
excreting excess liquid as drops of
honeydew as they feed.
Table I lists common whiteflics in Cali-
fornia gardens and landscapes.
DAMAGE
Whiteflies suck phloem sap. Large
populations can cause leaves to turn
yellow, appear dry, or fall off plants.
Like aphids, whiteflies excrete honey-
dew, so leaves may be sticky or cov-
ered with black sooty mold. The
honeydew attracts ants, which inter-
fere with the activities of natural en-
emies that may control whiteflies and
other pests.
Feeding by the immature silverleaf
whitefly, &niisia arSentifolii, can cause
plant distortion, discoloration, or sil-
vering of leaves and may cause serious
EST ES Publication 7401
University of California
Agriculture and Natural Resources Revised September 2002
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September 2002 Whiteflies
Figure 2. look at empty nymphal cases
to defect parasitism a healthy adult
whitefly emerged from the T-shaped
hole in the mature nymph on the left,
whereas an adult parasite emerged from
the round hole on the right.
colored lady beetle, Hannonia axyridis,
feed on whiteflies. Whitcflies have a
number of naturally occurring para-
sites that can be very important in con-
trolling some species. Encarsie spp.
parasites are commercially available
for release in greenhouse situations;
however, they are not generally recom-
mended for outdoor use because they
are not well adapted for survival in
temperate zones. An exception is the
use of parasite releases for bayberry
whitefly in citrus in southern Califor-
nia. You can evaluate the degree of
natural parasitiza lion in your plants by
checking empty whitefly pupal cases.
Those that were parasitized will have
round or oval exit holes and those from
which a healthy adult whitelly
emerged will have a T-shaped exit hole
(Fig. 2). Whitefly nymphs can some-
times be checked for parasitization
before emergence by noting a darken-
ing in their color. However, some
whitefly parasites do not turn hosts
black and many whitefly nymphs that
occur on ornamentals are black in their
unparasiLized state.
Avoiding the use of insecticides that
kill natural enemies is a very important
aspect of whit efly management. Prod-
ucts containing carbaryl, pyrethroids,
diazinon or Joliar sprays of imidado-
prid can be particularly disruptive.
Control of dust and ants, which protect
whiteflies from their natural enemies,
can also be important, especially in
citrus or other trees.
Removal
Hand-removal of leaves heavily in-
fested with the nonrnobile nymphal
and pupal stages may reduce popula-
tions to levels that natural enemies can
contain. Water sprays (syringing) may
also be useful in dislodging adults.
A small, hand-held, battery-operated
vacuum cleaner has also been recom-
mended for vacuuming adults off
leaves. Vacuum in the early morning
or other limes when it is cool and
vhiteflies are sluggish. Kill vacuumed
insects by placing the vacuum bag in a
plastic bag and freezing it overnight.
Contents may be disposed of the next
clay.
Mulches
Aluminum foil or reflective plastic
mulches can repel whiteflies, especially
away from small plants. Aluminum-
coated construction paper is available
in rolls from Reynolds Aluminum
Company. Alternatively, you can spray
clear plastic mulch with silver paint.
Reflective plastic mulches are also
available in many garden stores.
To put a mulch in your garden, first
remove all weeds. Place the mulch on
the plant beds and bury the edges with
soil to hold them down. After the
mulch is in place, cut 3- to 4-inch diam-
cler holes and plant several seeds or
single transplants in each one. You
may furrow irrigate or sprinkle your
beds if you use aluminum-coated con-
struction paper or other porous mulch;
the mulch is sturdy enough to tolerate
sprinkling. Plastic mulches will require
drip irrigation. In addition to repelling
whiteflics, aphids, and leafhoppers, the
mulch will enhance crop growth and
control weeds. Mulches have been
shown to deter the transmission of
viruses in commercial vegetable crops.
When summertime temperatures get
high, however, remove mulches to
prevent overheating plants.
Traps
In vegetable gardens, yellow sticky
traps can be posted around the garden
to trap adults. Such traps won't eli-
nate damaging populations but may
reduce them somewhat as a compo-
nent of an integrated management
program relying on multiple tactics.
Wliiteflies do not fly very far, so many
traps may be needed. You may need as
many as one trap for every two large
plants, with the sticky yellow part of
the trap level with the whitefly infesta-
tion. Place traps so the sticky side faces
plants but is Out of direct sunlight.
Commercial traps are commonly avail-
able, or you can make traps out of
!4-inch plywood or masonite board,
painted bright yellow and mounted on
pointed wooden stakes that can be
driven into the soil close to the plants
that are to be protected. Although com-
mercially available sticky substrates
such as Stickem or Tanglefoot are corn-
mnnlv used as coatings for the traps,
you might want to try to make your
Table 1, continued. Major Economic Hosts of Some Common Whitellies.
Mulberry wtitetly Most plants: citrus, other trees
(Tefraleurodes moo) Characteristics: Nymphs have blackish, oval bodies
with white, waxy tinge.
Si)vedeaf and sweetpotato Host plants: very broad including many herbaceous and
whiletlies (Bemisia some woody plants such as cotton. cucurbits, tomatoes.
argentifolil and a (abaci) peppers, bntana, cole crops, and hibiscus
O
Characteristics: Fourth-instar nymphs have no waxy
yellow body: they hold their wings slightly lifted to surface
filaments or marginal hinge. Adults have white wings and
or substrate.
Woolly whitefly Host plants: citrus. eugenia
(Aleumthnxus Qoccosus) Characteristics: Nymphs are covered with fluffy, waxy
filaments.
*3*
ptember 2002
Whiteflies
n adhesive from one-part petroleum
y or mineral oil and one-part
.i'ehold detergent. This material can
cleaned off boards easily with soap
1 water, whereas a commercial so)-
-it must be used to remove the other
hesives. Periodic cleaning is essen-
I to remove insects and debris from
boards and maintain the sticky
rface.
:secficiile Sprays
secticides have only a limited effect
iwhiietlies. Most kill only those
hiteflies that come in direct contact
ith them. For particularly trouble-
ime situations, try insecticidal soap or
an insecticidal oil such as neem oil or
narrow-range oil. Because these prod-
ucts only kill whitefly nymphs that are
directly sprayed, plants must be thor-
oughly covered with the spray solu-
tion. Be sure to cover undersides of all
infested leaves; usually these are the
lowest leaves and the most difficult to
reach. Use soaps when plants are not
drought-stressed and when tempera-
tures are under 80F to prevent pos-
sible damage to plants. Avoid using
other pesticides to control whiteflies;
not only do most of them kill natural
enemies, whiteflies quickly build up
resistance to them, and most are not
very effective in garden situations.
REFERENCES
Bellows, T. S., J. N. Kabashima, and
K. Robb. )an. 2002. Pest Notes: Giant
Wlritejhj. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Agnc.
Nat. Res. Pub). 7400. Also available
online at http:I /www.ipm.ucdavis.
edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn74001trn1
Flint, M. L. 1998. Pests of the Garden and
Small Farm. 2nd ed. Oakland: Univ.
Calif. Agrtc. Nat. Res. Pub). 3332.
or more information contact the University
I California Cooperative Extension or agri-
ultural commissioner's office in your county.
ee your phone book for addresses and
-hone numbers.
tUTHOR: M. L. Flint
DlTOR: B. Ohiendort
)ESIGN AND PRODUCTION: M. Brush
IWSiRAllONS: from M. L. Flint. July
1995. Y.eThes in California: a Resowce for
ooperative Extension. UC IPM Pubt. 19.
ianl wtiitefly in Table 2 by D. H. Hendrick.
Produced by IPM Education and Publica-
tions. UC Statewide IPM Program. University
at California. Davis. CA 95616.8620
This Pest Note is available on the World
Wide Web (httpJ/www.ipm.ucdavis.edu)
F.1 UC
JfllMld PEERka
a' UC+ PPM REVIEWW
-
This publication has been anonymously peer 'e-
,iwwed for technical accuracy by Univrslty 01 Call-
ómia scientists and other qualifred professionals.
rhis review process was managed by the ANR As-
ociate Editor for Pest Management.
To simplify information. trade names of products
iave been used. No endorsemevitof named products
s intended. nor is criticism implied of similar products
hat are not mentioned.
This material isparlrallybased upon work supported
y the Extension Service. U.S. Department of
gricutlure. under special project Section 31d).
itegrated Pest Management.
WARNING ON THE USE OF CHEMICALS
Pesticides are poisonous. Always read and carefully follow at precautions and safety teaxnmendatlons
given on the container label. Store all eongfrral labeled contalnersina locked cabinetushed.
away from food or feeds, and out at the reach of children. unauthorized persons, pets, and livestock.
Confine chemicals to the properly being bested. Avoid drift o
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l
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gardens containing fruits or vegetables ready to be picked.
Do not place containers containing pesticide in the trash nor pour pesticides down sink or toilet. Either
use the pesticide according to the label or take unwanted pesticides to a Household Hazardous Waste
Collection site. Contact your county agriwltrnaf cormirlasio
n
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disposal and for the location 01 the. Household Hazardous Waste Collection site nearest you. Dispose of
empty containers by following label directions. Never reus
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them in such
a manner that they may contaminate water supplies or na
t
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r
a
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w
a
y
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.
The University of California prohibits discrimination against or
h
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s
m
e
n
t
o
f
a
n
y
p
e
r
s
o
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p
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r
seeking employment with the University on the base of race. color. national origin, religion. sex, physical
or menial disability, medical condition (cancer-related or genetic c
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
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s
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,
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marital stalus,
age, sexual orientation. CiUZCnShIp, or status as a covere
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veteran, or any other veteran whoserved on active duly during awar or in
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directed to the Alfiimalive ActionlStrift Personnel Services Director. University of California. Agriculture and
Natural Resources, 300 Lakeside Or.. Oakland. CA 94612-3350: (510) 987.0096.
.. 4.
August 2001 Weed Management in Landscapes
Weed contTol options in the landscape
include hand-weeding and cultivation,
mowing, mulching, hot water treat-
ments, and chemical control. All of
these methods are used at one time or
another in landscape maintenance op-
erations (Table 2). After elimination by
hand-pulling, cultivation, or a post-
emergent herbicide application, the
subsequent gTowth of annual weeds
can be discouraged with mulches and /
or preemergent herbicides.
Cultivation and Hand-weeding
Cultivation (hoeing) and hand-
weeding selectively remove weeds
from ornamental plantings. These
methods are time-consuming, expen-
sive, and must be repeated frequently
until the plantings become established.
Cultivation can damage ornamentals
with shallow roots, bring weed seeds
to the soil surface, and propagate pe-
rennial weeds. When cultivatin& avoid
deep tillin& as this brings buried weed
seeds to the soil surface where they are
more likely to germinate. Perennial
weeds are often spread by cultivation
and should be controlled or removed
by oilier methods.
Frequent hand-removal of weeds when
they are small and have not yet set
seed will rapidly reduce the number of
annual weeds. If weeds are scattered at
a site, hand-weeding may be the pre-
(erred management method. Hand-
TABLE 2. How to Manage Weeds in Five Types of Landscape Plantings.
Type of planting and comments
Woody Trees and Shrub Beds. Densely shaded plantings
reduce weeds. Preptant weed control is not as critical as in other
types of plantings. It is often necessary to combine treatments for
complete weed control.
Woody Ground Cover Beds. Woody ground covers should
exclude most weeds: however, weed encroachment during
establishment is likely.
Annual Flower Beds. A dosed canopy will help shade out many
weeds. Periodic cultivations (at 3- to 4-week intervals and
between display rotations) will suppress many weeds.
Herbaceous Perennial Beds. Weed management options in
herbaceous perennial beds are similar to those for annual
flowers, except (1) it is more important to eradicate perennial
weeds as there will be no opportunity to cultivate or renovate the
bed for several years: and (2) fewer species are included on
herbicide labels.
Mixed Plantings of Woody and Herbaceous Plants. Weed
management is complex because of the diversity of species.
Different areas of the bed could receive different treatments. Site
preparation is critical because postplant herbicide choices are
few.
Recommendations
Control perennial weeds before planting (although control may be
possible after planting); use geotmdile fabrics with a shallow layer
of mulch or use a thick layer of mulch without a geotextite base:
use a preemergent herbicide, if needed. and supplement with spot
applications 01 poslemergent herbicides and/or hand-weeding.
Perennial weeds may be controlled by manual removal, spot
applications of glyphosate or glufosinate. or, in some instances,
dormant-season applications of preemergent herbicides. Escaped
weeds may be controlled manually or with spot applications of
posternergent herbicides.
Control perennial weeds before planting, although perennial
grasses may be selectively cOntrolled after planting with fluazifop
(Fusilade. Ornamec), deihodim (Envuy), or other selective grass
herbicides. Annual weeds may be controlled with mulch plus a
preemergent herbicide, supplemented with some hand-weeding.
Use geotextiles where possible but do not use them where ground
covers are expected to root and spread. After planting, it is difficult
to make spot applications of nonselective herbicides without
irqunng desirable plants. Postemergent control of most annual and
perennial grasses is possible.
Control perennial weeds before planting and carefully select flower
species for weed management compatibility. Annual weeds may be
controlled with mulches, preemergent herbicides, frequent
cultivation, and/or hand-weeding. Perennial grasses can be
selectively controlled with clethodim or fluazifop. or other grass-
selective herbicides, but other perennial weeds cannot be
selectively controlled after planting. Geotextiles generally are not
useful because of the shod-tesm nature of the planting. Avoid
nonselective herbicides after planting.
Control perennial weeds before planting: use geolextiles where
possible: use mulches with a preemergent herbicide: and
supplement with hand-weeding.
Plant the woody species first; control perennial weeds in the first
two growing seasons, then introduce the herbaceous species.
Plant close together to shade the entire area. Another option may
be to define use-areas within the bed that will receive similar weed
management programs.
.2.
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August 2001 Weed Management in Landscapes
the ground, cut an "X" over the plant
and pull it through the cloth. II laying
down a fabric before planting, cut an
"X" through the fabric and dig a plant-
ing hole. Avoid leaving soil from the
planting hole on top of the fabric be-
cause this could put weed seeds above
the material. Fold the X" back down
to keep the geotextile sheet as continu-
ous as possible. Weeds will grow
through any gap in the landscape fab-
ric, so it is important to overlap pieces
of fabric and tack them down tightly.
Apply a shallow mulch layer (about I
inch deep) to thoroughly cover the
fabric and prevent photodegradation.
If weeds grow into or through the
geotextile, remove them when they are
small to prevent them from creating
holes in the fabric. Maintain a weed-
free mulch layer on top of the fabric by
hand-weeding or by applying herbi-
cides. Use of a rock mulch above a
landscape fabric can have greater weed
control than fabric plus organic mulch
combinations.
Yellow nutsedge grows through all
geotextiles but some fabrics are better
:at suppressing yellow nutsedge than
others (for more information, see Pest
Noics: Nulsedge, listed in "References").
Problems with Organic and Natural
Inorganic Muicbes. There are several
problems associated with the use of
organic and inorganic mulches. Peren-
nial weeds such as field bindweed and
nutsedges often have sufficient root
reserves to enable them to penetrate
even thick layers of mulches. Some
annual weeds will grow through
mulches, while others may germinate
on top of them as they decompose.
Weeds that are a particular problem
are those that have windbome seeds
such as common groundsel, prickly
lettuce, and common sowthistle. Ap-
plying mulches at depths of greater
than 4 inches may injure plants by
keeping the soil too wet and limiting
oxygen to the plant's roots. Disease
incidence, such as root or stem rot,
may increase when deep mulches are
maintained.
When mulches are too line, applied too
thickly, or begin to decompose, they
stay wet between rains and allow
weeds to germinate and grow directly
in the mulch. For best weed control,
use a coarse-textured mulch with a low
water-holding capacity. When used
alone, mulches rarely provide 100%
weed control. To improve the level of
weed control, apply preemergent her-
bicides at the same time as the mulch
(see Table 3). Supplemental hand-
weeding or spot spraying may also be
needed.
Avoid mulches with a pH less than 4
or that have an "off odor- such as am-
monia, vinegar, or rotten egg smell.
These mulches were stored incorrectly
and contain chemical compounds that
may injure plants, especially herba-
ceous plants.
If using a composted mulch tempera-
lures achieved during the composting
process should have killed most weed
seeds. However, if the compost was
stored uncovered in the open, weed
seeds may have been blown onto the
mulch. Be sure the mulch is not con-
taminated with weed seeds or other
propagules such as nutsedge tubers.
Hot Water or
Steam Treatments
There are several machines currently
available that use hot water or steam to
kill weeds. These machines are most
effective on very young annual weeds
or perennials that have recently
emerged from seeds. The effect is simi-
lar to that of a nonselective, post-
emergent herbicide. Hot water and
steam are not very effective on peren-
nial weeds with established storage
organs, such as rhizomes and bulbs,
nor do they control woody plants. In
general, broadleaf weeds are more
easily controlled by this method than
grasses. The equipment is expensive to
purchase and maintain, so these ma-
chines are not appropriate for home
use. However, commercial landscap-
cr5 may find them useful in certain
situations where the use of herbicides
is not desired such as when line-
marking playing fields, in play-
grounds, around woody plants, for
edging, and for weeds growing along
fence lines. Some brands of equipment
travel slowly (about 2 mile/hour) and
are probably not cost-effective for
weed control along roadsides. Because
these methods employ boiling water or
steam, workers must be adequately
trained in the use of the machines to
prevent severe bums.
Herbicides for
Landscape Plantings
Herbicides have been effectively used
in many types of landscape plantings
and are most often integrated with the
cultural practices discussed above.
Generally, home gardeners should not
need to apply herbicides to existing
landscape plantings. Hand-weeding
and mulching should provide suffi-
cierit control and avoid hazards to de-
sirable plants associated with herbicide
use. Many herbicides listed here are for
use by professional landscape pest
managers and are not available to
home gardeners. To determine which
herbicide(s) are ma product, look at
the active ingredients on the label.
Preemergent Herbicides.. When weeds
have been removed from an area,
preemergent herbicides can then be
applied to prevent the germination or
survival of weed seedlings. Preerner-
gent herbicides must be applied before
the weed seedlings emerge. Examples
of preemergent herbicides include:
DCPA (Dacihal), dithiopyr (Dimen-
sion), isoxaben (Gallery), metolachior
(Pennant), napropamide (Devrinol),
oryzalin (Surflan, Weed Stopper),
oxadiazon (Ronstar). oxyfluorlen
(Goal), pendimethalin (Pendulum, Pie-
M), and prodiarnine (Barricade).
DCPA, dithiopyr, oryzalip, napro-
pamide, pendimethalin, and prodia-
mine control annual grasses and many
broadleaf weeds and can be used
safely around many woody and herba-
ceous ornamentals. Metolachlor has
become popular because it controls
yellow nutsedge as well as most an-
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August 2001 Weed Management in Landscapes
wet leaves. Apply nonselective herbi-
cides such as diquat, peJaronic acid,
or glyphosate with low pressure and
large droplets on a calm day. Use
shielded sprayers when making appli-
cations around ornamentals to avoid
contact with nontarget plants.
Herbicide injury to established plants
from soil-applied chemicals is often
temporary but can cause serious
growth inhibition to newly planted
ornamentals. Herbicides that contain
oryzalin or isoxaben are more likely to
cause this injury. Injury may result
when persistent herbicides are applied
In surrounding areas for weed control
in turf, agyonomic aops, or complete
vegetative control under pavement.
Activated charcoal incorporated into
the soil may adsorb the herbicide and
minimize injury. Usually it just takes
time for herbicide residues to corn-
pletely degrade. To speed degradation,
supplement the organic content of the
soil and keep it moist but not wet dur-
ing periods of warm weather.
COMPILED FROM:
Derr, J. F. et al. Feb 1997. Weed Man-
agement in Landscape and Nursery
Plantings, from Weed Management
and Horticultural Crops. WSSA/ASHS
Symposium.
REFERENCES
Dreistadt, S. H. 1992. Pests of Landscape
Trees and Shrubs. Oakland: Univ. Calif.
Agric Nat. Res. Publ. 3359.
Fischer, B. B., ed. 1998. Grower's Weed
Identification Handbook. Oakland: Univ.
Calif. Agric Nat. Res. Publ. 4030.
UC Statewide IPM Project. Pest Notes
series Annual Bluegrass. Bermuda-
grass. Common Knotweed. Common
Purslane. Crabgrass. Creeping
Woodsorrel I Bermuda Buttercup. Dande-
lion. Dodder. Field Bindweed. Green
Kyllinga. Kikuvugrass. Mistletoe. Nut-
sedge. Poison Oak. Plantains. Russian
Thistle. Spotted Spurge. Wild Blackber-
ries. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Agric Nat. Res.
Also available online at http: I /
www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/
selectnewpest.home.htsnl
UC. Statewide IPM Project. tiC IPM Pest
Management Guidelines: Turf-ass. Oak-
land: Univ. Calif. Agric Nat. Res. Publ.
3365-1. Also available online at http:I/
www.iouLucdavis.edu/PMG/
sclecthewpcst.turfgrassithrtl
For more information contact the University
of California Cooperative Extension or agri-
cultural commissioner's office in your coun-
ty. See your phone bock for addresses and
phone numbers.
AUTHOR:-C.A. When and C. L. Elmore
EDITOR: B. Ohtendorl
TECHNICAL EDITOR: M. L. Flint
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: M. Brush
Produced by IPM Education and Publica-
tions. UC Statewide IPM Project. University
of California, Davis. CA 95616-8620
This Pest Note Is available on the World
Wide Web (http:Itwww.ipm.ucdavis.edu)
fl UC
UC9'IPM REVIEWED IN )
This publication has been anonymously peer
reviewed for technical accuracy by University of
California scientists and other qualified protes-
sionats. This review process was managed by the
ANR Associate Editor for Pest Management.
To simplify information. trade names of products
have been used. No endorsement of ruined products
is intended. nor is criticism implied of similar products
that are not mentioned.
This material is partially based upon work
supported bythe Extension Service. U.S. Department
of Agriculture, under special project Section 3(d).
Integrated Pest Management.
WARNING ON THE USE OF CHEMICALS
Pesticides are poisonous. Always read and carefully follow alt precautions and safety recomrnendalions
given on the container label. Store all chemicals in the original labeled containers in a locked cabinet or shed.
away from food or feeds, and out of the reach of children, unauthorized persons, pets, and livestock.
Confine chemicals to the properly being treated. Avoid drift onto neighboring properties. especially
gardens containing fruits or vegetables ready to be picked.
Do not place containers containing pesticide in the trash nor pour pesticides down sink or toilet. Either
use the pesticide according to the label or take unwanted pesticides to a Household Hazardous Waste
Collection site. Contact your county agricultural commissioner for additional information on safe container
disposal and for the location of the Household Hazardous Waste Collection site nearest you. Dispose of
empty containers by following label directions. Never reuse or bum the containers or dispose of them in such
a manner that they may contaminate water supplies or natural waterways.
The University of California prohibits discrimination against or harassment of any person employed by or
seeking employment with the University on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion. sex, physical
or mental disability, medical condition (cancet-related or genetic characteristics), ancestry, marital status.
age, sexual orientation. citizenship, or status as a covered veteran (special disabled veteran. Vietnam-era
veteran, or any other veteran who served on active duty during a war or in a campaign or expedition for which
a campaign badge has been authorized). University policy is intended lobe consistent with the provisions
of applicable State and Federal laws. Inquiries regarding the Umversitys nondiscrimination policies may be
directed to the Affirmative AclionlStafl Personnel Services Director. University of California. Agriculture and
Natural Resources. 300 Lakeside Or.. Oakland. CA 94612-3350: (510) 957-0096.
TER M! TES
Integrated Pest Management in and around the Home
Termites are small, white, tan, or black
insects that can cause severe destruc-
tion to wooden structures. Termites
belong 10 the insect order Isoptera, an
ancient insect group that dates back
more than 100 million years. The Latin
name Isoptera means equal wing"
and flrefers to the fact that the front set
of wings on areproductive teimite is
similar in size and shape to the hind
set.
Although many people think termites
have only negative impacts, in nature
they make many positive contributions
to the world's ecosystems. Their great-
est contribution is the role they play in
recycling wood and plant material.
Their tunneling efforts also help to
ensure that soils are porous, contain
nutrients, and are healthy enough to
support plant growth. Termites are
very important in the Sahara Desert
where their activity helps to reclaim
soils damaged by drying heat and
wind and the overgrazing by livestock.
Termites become a problem when they
consume structural lumber. Each year
thousands of housing units in the
United States require treatment for the
control of termites. Termites may also
damage utility poles and other wooden
Ant
Mtenn
elbowed Wmgs (d — tue
Thin waist few vms. wigsaie
smai than front wigs.
structures. Termite pests in California
include drywood, danrpwood, and
subterranean species. These pests
cause serious damage to wooden struc-
tures and posts and may also attack
stored food, books, and household
furniture.
IDENTIFICATION
Termite!; are social and can form large
nests or colonies, consisting of very
different looking individuals (castes).
Termite Antenna
not elbowed
Broad waot
Wings (if fxesent)
have many siTul VU
FraritandWidwhigsare
same sue.
Physically the largest individual is the
queen. Her function is to lay eggs.
sometimes thousands in a single day. A
king is always by her side. Other indi-
viduals have large heads with powerful
jaws, or a buiblike head that squirts
liquid. These individuals are called
soldiers. But the largest group of ter-
mites in a colony is the workers. They
toil long hours tending the queen,
building the nest, or gathering food.
While other species of social insects
have workers, termites are unique
among insects in that workers can be
male or female. Surprisingly, termites
can be long-lived: queens and kings
can Jive for decades while individual
workers can survive for several years.
Signs of termite infestation include
swarming of winged forms in fall and
spring and evidence of tunneling in
wood. Darkening or blistering of
wooden structural members is another
indication of an infestation; wood in
worker soldier winged reproductive
Subterranean Termite
!j Pacific Dampwood Termite
soldier reproductive
Drywood Termite
Figure 1. Subterranean, drywood, and dampwood termites.
Figure 2. Distinguishing features of ants and termites.
EST tMOTES Publication 7415
University of California
Agriculture and Natural Resources Revised May 2001
May 2001 Termites
damaged areas is typically thin and
easily punctured with a knife or screw-
driver.
There are more than 2,500 different
types of termites in the world and at
least 17 different types of termites in
California. However, most of this di-
versity can be lumped into four dis-
tinct groups: dampwood, dywood.
subterranean, and mound builders.
Mound builders do not occur in North
America, but the other three species do
(Fig. 1). Dampwood termites are very
limited in their distribution: most spe-
cies are found only in California and
the Pacific Northwest. Dampwood
termites derive their name from the
fact that they live and feed in very
moist wood, especially in stumps and
fallen trees on the forest floor.
Dryw ood termites are common on
most continents and can survive in
very dry conditions, even in dead
wood in deserts. They do not require
contact with moisture or soil Subterra-
nean termites are very numerous in
many parts of the world and live and
breed in soil, sometimes many feet
deep. Lastly, the mound builders are
capable of building earthen towers 25
feet or more in height. Mounds may be
located either in the soil or in trees, and
where they occur in Africa, Australia,
Southeast Asia, and parts of South
America, they are very noticeable and
remarkable.
Termites are sometimes confused with
winged forms of ants, which also leave
their underground nests in large num-
bers to establish new colonies and
swarm in a manner similar to that of
reproductive stages of termites. How-
ever, ants and termites can be distin-
guished by checking three features:
antennae, wings, and waist (Fig. 2).
Darnpr000d Termites
Dampwood termites are fairly com-
mon in central and northern coastal
areas in California. They nest in wood
buried in the ground, although contact
with the ground is not necessary when
infested wood is high in moisture. Be-
cause of their high moisture require-
ments. dampwood termites most often
an' found in cool, humid areas along
the coast and are typical pests of beach
houses. Winged reproductives typically
swarm between July and October, but it
is not unusual to see them at other
times of the year. Dampwood termite
winged reproductives (sometimes
called swarmers) are attracted to lights.
Dampwood termites produce distinc-
tive fecal pellets that are rounded at
both ends, elongate, and lack the clear
longitudinal ridges common to
drywood termite pellets (Fig. 3). Final
confirmation of pellet identification
may require help from an expert.
The Nevada dampwood termite,
Zoo fcrmopsis nevadensis, occurs in the
higher, drier mountainous areas of the
Sierras where it is an occasional pest in
mountain cabins and other forest struc-
tures; it also occurs along the northern
California coast. The Pacific dampwood
termite, ZooS ermopsis anguslicollis, is
almost one inch lon& making it the
largest of the termites occurring in Cali-
fornia. Winged reproductives are dark
brown with brown wings. Soldiers
have a flattened brown or yellowish
brown head with elongated black or
dark brown mandibks. Nymphs are
cream colored with a characteristic
spotted abdominal pattern caused by
food in their intestines. Nevada
dampwood termites are slightly smaller
and darker than the Pacific species;
reproductives are about Y4 inch long.
Drywood Termites
Drywood termites infest dry, unde-
cayed wood, including structural lum-
ber as well as dead limbs of native trees
and shade and orchard trees, utility
poles, posts, and lumber in storage.
From these areas, winged reproduc-
lives seasonally migrate to nearby
buildings and other structures usually
on sunny days during fall months.
Drywood termites are most prevalent
in southern California (including the
desert areas), but also occur along most
coastal regions and in the Central
Valley.
Drv'wood termites have a low moisture
requirement and can tolerate dry condi-
tions for prolonged periods. lhey re-
main entirely above ground and do not
connect their nests to the soil. Piles of
their feral pellets, which are distinctive
in appearance, may be a clue to their
presence. The fecal pellets are elongate
(about 3F100 inch long) with rounded
ends and have six flattened or roundly
depressed surfaces separated by six
longitudinal ridges (see Fig.-3). They
vary considerably in color, but appear
granular and salt and pepperlike in
color and appearance.
Winged adults of western drywood
termites (IncisiImncs minor) are dark
brown with smoky black wings and
have a reddish brown head and thorax;
wing veins are black. These insects are
noticeably larger than subterranean
termites.
Subterranean Termites
Subterranean termites require moist
environments To satisfy this need,
they usually nest in or near the soil and
maintain some connection with the soil
through tunnels in wood or through
shelter tubes they construct (Fig. 4).
These shelter tubes are made of soil
with bits of wood or even plasterboard
(drywall). Much of the damage they
cause occurs in foundation and struc-
tural support wood. Because of the
moisture requirements of subterranean
termites, they are often found in wood
that has wood rot.
The western subterranean termite,
Relkulikrrnes hesperus, is the most de-
structive termite found in California.
Reproductive winged forms of subter-
ranean termites are dark brown to
brownish black, with brownish gray
wings. On warm, sunny days follow-
drywood dampwood
lermite termite
Figure 3. Fecal pellets of drywood and
dampwood termites.
wor"lubes exploratory tubes drop tubes
Figure 4. Subterranean termites construct three types of tubes or tunnels. Working
tubes (left) are constructed from nests in the soil to wooden structures; they may
travel up concrete or stone foundations. Exploratory and migratory tubes (center)
arise from the soil but do not connect to wood structures. Drop tubes (right) extend
from wooden structures back to the soil.
Figure 5. Subterranean termite colony with multiple nesting sites.
*3*
May 2001 Termites
ing fall or sometimes spring rains,
swarms of reproductives may be seen.
Soldiers are wingless with white bod-
ies and pale yellow heads. Their lon&
narrow heads have no eyes. Workers
are slightly smaller than reproductives,
wingless, and have a shorter head than
soldiers; their color is similar to that of
soldiers. In the desert areas of Califor-
nia, Heicrolermes aureus, is the most
destructive species of subterranean
termites. Another destructive species
in this group, the Forrnosan subterra-
nean termite, Coptolerrnesformosanus, is
now in California but restricted to a
small area near San Diego. Unlike the
western subterranean termite,
Formosan subterranean termites
swarm at dusk and are attracted to
lights.
LIFE CYCLE
Most termite species swarm in late
summer or fall, although spring
swarms are not uncommon for subter-
ranean and diywood termites. New
kings and queens are winged during
Their early adult life but lose their
wings alter dispersing from their origi-
nal colony. An infestation begins when
a mated pair finds a suitable nesting
site near or in wood and constructs a
small chamber, which they enter and
seal. Soon afterward, the female begins
egg laying, and both the king and
queen feed the young on predigested
food until they are able to feed them-
selves. Most species of termites have
derstand methods of control. In most
cases it is advisable to hire a profes-
sional pest control company to carry
out the inspection and control
program.
Management techniques vary depend-
ing on the species causing an infesta-
tion. Multiple colonies of the same
species of termite or more than one
species of termite can infest a building
(Fig. 5). Any of these variables will
influence your control approach. Sub-
terranean, and less frequentiy,
dampwood termites can have nests at
or near ground level, so control meth-
ods for these can be similar. However,
drywood termites nest above ground,
therefore the approach for eliminating
them is unique.
Use an integrated program to manage
termites. Combine methods such as
modifying habitats, excluding termites
from the building by physical and
chemical means, and using mechanical
and chemical methods 16 destroy exist-
ing colonies.
Inspection
Before beginning a control program,
thoroughly inspect the building. Verify
that there are termites, identify them,
and assess the extent of their infesta-
tion and damage. Look for conditions
within and around the building that
promote termite attack, such as exces-
sive moisture or wood in contact with
the soil. Because locating and identify-
ing termite species is not always easy,
it may be advisable to have a profes-
sional conduct the inspection.
microscopic, one-celled animals called
protozoa within their intestines that
help in converting wood (cellulose)
into food for the colony.
Once workers and nymphs are pro-
duced, the king and queen are fed by
the workers and cease feeding on
wood. Termites go through incomplete
metamorphosis with egg, nymph, and
adult stages. Nymphs resemble adults
but are smaller and are the most nu-
merous stage in the colony. They also
groom and feed one anotherand other
colony members.
MANAGEMENT
Successful termite management re-
quires many special skills, including a
working knowledge of building con-
struction. An understanding of termite
biology and identification can help a
homeowner detect problems and Un-
May 2001 Termites
Table 1. Relative Resistance of Lumber.to Termites'
Moderately or Slightly resistant or
very resistant Moderately resistant nonresistant
Arizona cypress bald cypress (young growth) alder
bald cypress (old growth) Douglas fir ashes
black cherry eastern white pine aspens
black locust honey locust basswood
black walnut loblolly pine beech
bur oak longleaf pine birches
catalpa shodieaf pine black oak
cedars swamp chestnut oak butternut
chestnut tamarack cottonwood
chestnut oak western larch elms
garnbel oak hemlocks
junipers hickories
mesquite maples
Oregon white oak pines
osage orange poplars
Pacific yew red oak
post oak spruces
red mulberry true firs
redwood
sassafras
white oak
Adapted from: Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material. USDA Agriculture
Handbook No. 72.
'The heartwood of thetree offers the greatest resistance to termite attack.
Prevention
Building design may contribute to
termite invasion. Keep all substructural
wood at least 12 inches above the soil
beneath the building. Identify and
coned other structural deficiencies
that attract or promote termite infesta-
tions. Stucco siding that reaches the
ground promotes termite infestations.
Keep attic and foundation areas well
ventilated and dry. Use screening over
attic vents and seal other openings,
such as knotholes; and cracks, to dis-
courage the entry of winged diywood
termites. Although screening of foun-
dation vents or sealing other openings
into the substructure helps block the
entry of termites, these procedures
may interfere with adequate ventila-
tion and increase moisture problems,
especially i f a very fine mesh is used in
the screening. Inspect utility and ser-
vice boxes attached to the building to
see that they are sealed and do not
provide shelter Ora point of entry for
termites. Reduce chances of infestation
by removing or protecting any wood in
contact with the soil. Inspect porches
and other structural or Inundation
wood for signs of termites. Look for.
and remove tree stumps, stored Jum-
beg', untreated fence posts, and buried
scrap wood near the structure that may
attract termites. Consult your local city
building codes before beginning Fe-
pairs or modifications.
Recent research has proved the effec-
tiveness of foundation sand barriers for
subterranean termite control. Sand
with particle sizes in the range of 10 to
16 mesh is used to replace soil around
the foundation of a building and some-
times in the crawl space. Subterranean
termites are unable to construct their
tunnels through the sand and therefore
cannot invade wooden structures rest-
ing on the foundation. Stainless steel
screening may also be available soon as
a physical barner for subterranean
termites.
Replacing Lumber in Structures.
Structural lumber in buildings is usu-
ally Douglas fir, hemlock, or spruce. Of
these materials, Douglas fir is moder-
ately resistant to termites, whereas the
other two are not (Table 1). Lumber
used in foundations and othrwood in
contact with the soil may be chemically
treated to help protect against termite
damage in areas where building de-
signs must be altered or concrete can-
not be used.
The most effective method of chemi-
cally treating wood is through pressure
treatment. Chemicals currently used in
pressurized treatments include
chromated copper arsenate (CCA),
ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate
(ACZA), disodiwn octoborate
tetrahydrate (DOT), and wolman salts
(sodium fluoride, potassium bichro-
mate, sodium chromate, and dinitro-
phenol). Wood containing CCA is
tinted green and ACZA is brownish.
DOT (borate) is clear in appearance on
the wood surface when used at labeled
amounts. Borates are gaining in popu-
lar usage because of their low mamma-
lian toxicity.
Many of the chemicals used in pressur-
ized lumber can also be applied topi-
cally to the wood by brushing or
spraying it on. Pressure treatment is
preferred over topical application be-
cause the chemical penetrates the lum-
ber much deeper (1/4 to lz inch) than it
does when applied by brush or spray.
Some of the more porous lumbers such
as the southern yellow pines (loblolly—
Pinus taeda; longleaf—P. palustris; and
shortleaf—P. cthinala) may be com-
pletely penetrated by the chemical
during the pressurized process. Topical
applications are most effective when
used as spot treatments on pressure-
treated lumber to treat newly exposed
wood when the lumber is cut and
drilled during construction.
Pressure-treated lumber is toxic to
termites and discourages new kings
and queens from establishing colonies
in it. 11 susceptible wood is used above
the treated wood, however, subterra-
nean termites can build their shelter
tubes over chemically treated wood
and infest untreated wood above.
Use only"exterior grade pressure-
treated lumber for areas that are ex-
posed to wrather; otherwise the
chemical in the lumber may leach from
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May 2001 Termites
Marer, V. 1991. Residential. Industrial.
and Institutional Pest Control. Opkland:
Univ. Calif. Agric. Nat. Res. Pubi. 3334.
REFERENCES
Potter, M. F. 1997. Termites. In A.
Maths, ed. Handbook of Pest Control, gih
ed. Cleveland: Franzak & Foster Co.
Scheffrahn, R. H., N.-Y. Su and P.
Busey. 3997. Laboratory and field
evaluations of selected chemical treat-
ments for control of drywood termites
(Isoptera: Kalotermitidae).J. Econ.
Entomol. 90:492-502.
Online References
California:
CAL Termite Web page,
www.mr.berkelev.edu/lewis
International.
UNEP/FAO/Global IFM Facility
Workshop on Termite Biology and
Management, www.chem.unep.ch /
pops/pdfftermrpipdl
For more information contact the University
of California Cooperative Extension or agn-
cultural commissioner's office in your coun-
ty. See your phone book for addresses and
phone numbers-
AUTHOR (revision): V. R. Lewis.
EDITOR: B. 0hlendorf
TECHNICAL EDITOR M. L. Flint
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: M. Brush
ILLUSTRATIONS: Figs. 13,4: D. Kidd; Fig.
2 Adapted from Termites and Other Wood-
Ini'es&,g Insects. Oakland: UC DANR Leaf-
let 2532: Fig. 5: Adapted from Maths. A.
1997. Handbook of Pest Control. 81h ed.
Cleveland: Franzak & Foster Co.
Produced by IPM Education and Publica-
tions. UC Statewide IPM Project, University
of California. Davis. CA 95616-8620
This Pest Note is available on the World
Wide Web (http:llwww.ipm.ucdavis.edu)
0 REVIEWED UC 9' IPM ME PEER
This publication has been anonymously peer
reviewed for technical accuracy by University of
California scientists and other qualified profes-
sionals. This review process was managed by the
ANR Associate Editor for Pest Management
To simplify information. trade names of products
have been used. Noendorsernenl of named products
islntended. not iscriticismimpriedolsimitar products
that are not mentioned.
This material is partially b3sed upon work
supported by the Extension Service. U.S. Department
of Agriculture. under special project Section 3(d).
Integrated Pest Management.
WAJING ON THE USE OF CHEMICALS
Pesticides are poisonous. Always read and carefully loltow all precautions and safety recommendations
given on the ccntaRle, labeL Store all chemicals i theoriginal tabeled containers in a locked cabinet or shed.
away from food or feeds, and out of the reach of children, unauthorized persons, pets, and livestock.
Confine chemicals to the properly being treated. Avoid drift onto neighboring properties. especially
gardens containing fruits or vegetables ready to be picked.
Do not place c0nt3in015 containing pesticide in the trash nor pour pesticides down sink or toilet. Either
use the pesticide according to the label or take unwanted pesticides to a Household Hazardous Waste
Collection site. Contact your county agricultural coninrissioner for additional information on safe container
disposal and for the location of the Household Hazardous Waste Collection site nearest you. Dispose of
empty containers by following labeldlredions. Never reuse or bum the containers or dispose of them in such
a manner that they may contaminate water supplies or natural waterways.
The University of California prohibits discrimination against or harassment of any person employed by or
seeking employment with the University on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion, sex. physical or
mental disability, medical condition (cancer-related or genetic characteristics). ancestry. rnardal status, age.
sexual orientation, citizenship, or status as a covered veteran (special disabled veteran. Vietnam-era
veteran. of any other veteran who served on active duty during a war or in a campaign or expedition for which
a campaign badge has been authorIzed). University policy is intended to be consistent with the provisions
of applicable State and Federal laws. Inquiries regarding the University's nondiscrimination policies may be
directed to the Affirmative Action/Staff Personnel Services Director. University of California. Agriculture and
Natural Resources. 300 Lakeside Or., Oakland. CA 94607.5200-.1510) 987-0096.
*6*
SPIDERS
Integrated Pest Management In and Around the Home
Many people fear or dislike spiders
but, for the most part. spiders are ben-
eficial because of their role as predators
of insects and other arthropods. and
most cannot harm people. Spiders that
might injure people—for example.
black widows—generally spend most
of their time hidden under furniture or
boxes, or in woodpiles. corners, or
crevices. The spiders commonly seen
out in the open during the day are
unlikely to bite people.
IDENTIFICATION
Spiders resemble insects and some-
times are confused with them, but they
are arachnids, not insects. Spiders have
eight legs and two body parts—a head
region (cephalothorax) and an abdo-
men. They lack wings and antennae.
Although spiders often are found on
plants, they eat mainly insects, other
spiders, and related arthropods. not
plants. Most spiders have toxic venom.
which they use to-kill their prey. How-
ever, only those spiders whose venom
typically causes a serious reaction in
humans are called'poisonous
spiders.
Black Widow Spider
The black widow spider..Latrtxleclus
hesperus (Fig. I). is the most common
harmful spider in California. Venom
from its bite can cause reactions rang-
ing from mild to painful and serious,
but death is very unlikely and many
symptoms can be alleviated if medical
treatment is obtained. Anyone bitten
by this spider should remain calm and
promptly seek medical advice; it is
helpful if the offending spider can be
caught and saved for identification.
The typical adult female black widow
has a shiny black body. slender black
legs, and a red or orange mark in the
shape of an hourglass on the underside
of the large, round abdomen (Fig. 2).
The body. excluding legs. is /i6 to 5/v
.IPEST
inch long. The adult male black widow
is one-half to two-thirds the length of
the female, has a small abdomen, and
is seldom noticed. The male black
widow does possess venom, but its
fangs are too small to break human
skin. The lop side of its abdomen is
olive greenish gray with a pattern of
cream-colored areas and one light-
colored band going lengthwise down
the middle. The hourglass mark on the
underside of the abdomen typically is
yellow or yellow-orange and broad-
waisted. The legs are banded with
alternating light and dark areas. Con-
trary to popular belief, the female black
widow rarely eats the male after mat-
ing. but may do so if hungry. Like
males, young female black widow spi-
ders are patterned on the top side. In
the early stages they greatly resemble
males, but gradually acquire the typi-
cal female coloration with each shed-
ding of the skin. In intermediate stages
they have tan or cream-colored, olive
gray, and orange markings on the, top
side of the abdomen, a yellowish or-
ange hourglass mark on the underside,
and banded legs. Only the larger im-
mature female and adult female spi-
ders are able to bite through a person's
skin and inject enough venom to cause
a painful reaction.
Webs and Egg Sacs. The web of the
black widow is an irregular, tough.
stranded, sticky cobweb mesh in which
The spider hangs with its underside up.
During the day it often hides under an
object at the edge of the web or stays in
a silken retreat in the center. The black
widow may rush out of its hiding place
when the web is disturbed, especially if
egg sacs are present. The egg sac's are
mostly spherical, about "z inch long
and S/8 inch in diameter, creamy yel-
low to light tan in color, opaque. and
tough and paperlike on the surface. A
female may produce several egg sacs.
Tiny. young black widows. which are
OTES
tacivaj size
ol body)
Figure 1. Adult black widow spider.
nearly white in color, disperse to new
locations by, ballooning and infest new
areas.
Where the Spiders Live. Black widow
spiders occur in most parts of Califor-
nia. They and their associated webs
usually are found in dark, dry. shel-
tered, relatively undisturbed places
such as among plies of wood. rubbish.
or stones: in culverts. hollow stumps.
and old animal burrows: in garages,
sheds, barns, crawl spaces, utility
meter boxes, and outhouses; and some-
times among plants. People are most
likely lobe bitten when they disturb
the spider while they are cleaning out
or picking up items in such places. A
sensible precaution is to always wear
gloves and a longsleeved shirt when
working in areas that have been undis-
turbed for a time and where there are
good hiding places for spiders.
Figure 2. Two variations of hourglass
markings of black widow spider.
Publication 7442
University of California
Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Revised May 2000
Figure 3. Adult yellow sac spider.
Figure 4. Head region of recluse spider
(7th) and yellow sac spider (right). Note
the arrangements of the eyes: the recluse
spider has six eyes arranged in three pairs
and the yellow sac spider has eight eyes
arranged in two rows of four.
May 2000 Spiders
Effects of the Bite. The symptoms of a
black viclow bite are largely internal:
little more than local redness and
swelling may develop at the bite site.
The internal effects may range from
mild to severe. Pain tends to spread
front the bite to other parts of the body
and muscular spasms may develop. In
severe cases the abdominal muscles
may become quite rigid. Other effects
can include profuse sweating, fever.
increased blood pressure. difficulty
breathing and speaking, restlessness,
and nausea. Typically. the pain and
other symptoms reach a maximum
within a day of the bite, then gradually
subside over the next Z to 3 days. Most
people who are bitten spend a few
hours under observation by a physi-
cian but do not develop symptoms
severe enough to require treatment.
Small children, the elderly, and per-
sons with health problems are likely to
suffer some of the more severe conse-
quences of the bite. Black widow bites
are fairly common in California.
Yellow Sac Spider
The common house-dwelling agrarian
sac or yellow sac spider. Cheiracan-
thium inclusum, is a small spider that
spins a silken sac web in the corners of
ceilings and walls, and behind shelves
and pictures: it is also commonly
found outdoors in shrubbery. This
spider is light yellow and has a slightly
darker stripe on the upper middle of
the abdomen (Fig 3). The eight eyes of
this spider are all about equal in size
and arranged in two horizontal rows
(Fig. 4).
Yellow sac spiders can be seen running
on walls and ceilings at night and
quickly drop to the floor to escape if
they are disturbed. Bites usually occur
when the spider becomes trapped
against a person's skin in clothing or
bedding. It is estimated that sac spiders
are responsible for more bites on
people than any other spider. Typical
symptoms of a bite include initial pain,
redness, and sometimes swelling. A
small blister may form, often breaking.
leaving a sore that heals over a period
of several weeks. Soreness near the bite
may last for a few days to several
weeks or may not occur at all, depend-
ing on the individual.
Recluse Spiders
Recluse spiders of the genus Loxosceles
include the well-known brown recluse
spider, L reciusa. which does not occur
in California. While the brown recluse
has occasionally been brought into
California in household furnishings,
firewood, and motor vehicles, it does
not reside in the state. However, an-
other recluse spider. The Chilean re-
cluse spider O iaeta), was introduced
into Los Angeles County in the late
I 960s. In Chile, South America it is
known to have a bite that is toxic to
humans. The native recluse spider of
California (L deserta) is found in the
desert regions of southern California
and neighboring states. Its bite can
cause problems, but it is not as toxic as
that of the Chilean recluse. In any case,
bites from either species are rare. Both
the native desert recluse spider and the
Chilean recluse spider occur princi-
pally in the drier areas of southern
California.
Recluse spiders can have a violin-
shaped mark (with the neck of the vio-
lin pointing backward) on the top side
of the head region (cephalothorax).
However, the mark is uiot always dis-
tinct, so it should not be used as an
identifying character. A unique feature
of recluse spiders is their six eyes. ar-
ranged in pairs in a semicircle (Fig. 4),
Spider Bites
Unlike mosquitoes. spiders do not seek people In order to bite them. Generally,
a spider doesn't try to bite a person unless It has been squeezed, lain on. or similarly
provoked to defend itself. Moreover. the jaws of most spiders are so small that the
fangs cannot penetrate the skin of an adult person. Sometimes when a spider is
disturbed in Its web, it may bite instinctively because it mistakenly senses that an
insect has been caught.
The severity of a spider bite depends on factors such as the kind of spider. the
amount of venom injected, and the age and health of the person bitten. A spider bite
might cause no reaction at all, or it might result in varying amounts of itching.
redness, stiffness, swelling, and pain—at worst, usually no more severe than a bee
sting. 'J'ypically the symptoms persist from a few minutes to a few hours. Like
reactions to bee stings, however, people vary in their responses to spider bites, so if
the bile of any spider causes an unusual or severe reaction, such as Increasing pain
or extreme swelling, contact a physician, hospital. or poison control center (in
California. the number is 1-800.8764766 or 1-800-8-POISON).
Sometimes a person may not be aware of having been bitten until pain and
other symptoms begin to develop. Other species of arthropods whose bites or stings
may be mistaken for that of a spider include licks, fleas, bees, wasps, bedbugs.
mosquitoes, the conenose (kissing) bug (Triatorna protracta). deer flies, horse flies.
and water bugs (1.eihocrri,s slip.).
For first aid treaUmicnt of a spider bite, wash the bite, apply an antiseptic to
prevent infection, and use ice or ice water to reduce swelling and discomfort. If you
rcccive a bile that Causes an unusual or severe reaction. covilact a physician. If you
catch the critter in the act, capture it for identification, preserve it (or whatever parts
of it remain), and take it to your county UC Cooperative Extension office. If no one
there can idcnlifv it. ask chat it be forwarded to a qualified arachmuologist.
•
II
(actual size
of body)
May 2000
Spiders
which can be seen with the use of a
good hand lens. Most other spiders
have eight eyes.
All recluse spiders make large, irregu-
lar. flattened, cobweb-type webs with
thick strands extending in all direc-
tions. These spiders avoid light, are
active at night, and tend to build their
webs in out-of-the-way places. Chilean
recluse spiders may be found indoors
in boxes, in corners, behind pictures. in
old clothing hanging undisturbed, and
in other similar places. Desert recluse
spiders appear outdoors where they
may be found under rocks or wood.
A person bitten by a recluse spider
may not be aware of having been bit-
ten at the time of the bite. The first
symptoms often appear several hours
later. They consist of pain, formation of
a small blister, redness, and swelling at
the bite site. In the days following the
initial bite, the tissue dies and sloughs
off, exposing underlying flesh. The
area develops into an open sore that is
very slow to heal and may leave a
sunken scar after healing. There may
be accompanying fiulike effects such as
nausea, fever, chills, and restlessness.
Bites from brown recluse spiders have
never been confirmed in California.
More detailed information on these
spiders is available in Pest Notes: Brown
Recluse and Other Recluse Spiders, listed
in the "Suggested Reading" section.
Other Spiders
In addition to the species mentioned
above, there are only a few other spe-
cies of spiders in California that may
on occasion bile humans. (Remember.
if the bite of any spider causes an un-
usual or severe reaction, contact a
physician.)
One kind of red and black jumping
spider. Phidippusjohaconi. may bile if it
is disturbed, but the bites are usually
not serious. The female spiders are
black with red on the top side of the
abdomen whereas the males are all
red. These spiders range in size from
34 to '/z inch long.
Tarantulas are long-lived spiders that
occupy burrows in the ground during
the day but often come out at night to
hunt insects near the burrow. They
comnionly.are feared because of their
large size and hairy appearance. Some
poisonous tarantulas occur in tropical
parts of the world, but the bites of Cali-
fornia tarantulas are not likely to be
serious-- at worst, they are similar to a
bee sting.
The hobo spider, Tegenaria agrestis.
also called the aggressive house spider,
is a common spider in the Pacific
Northwest. It builds funnel-shaped
webs in dark, moist areas such as base-
ments, window wells, wood piles. and
around the perimeter of homes. It is a
large (Ito 'i inch. including legs),
fast-running brown spider with a her-
ringbone or multiple chevron pattern
on the top of the abdomen.
Bites most commonly occur when a
person picks up firewood with a spider
on it or when a spider finds its way
into clothing or bedding. Reactions to
bites of the hobo spider are similar to
those caused by brown recluse spiders.
The major difference between the two
is that sometimes the bite of the hobo
spider is accompanied by a severe
headache that does not respond to
aspirin. The hobo spider has not been
documented in California. but it has
been documented as expanding its
range into other states that border
Washington and Oregon.
One spider frequently found indoors is
the common house spider. Achacaranea
tepidariorum (Fig. 5). which makes a
cobweb in corners of rooms, in win-
dows, and in similar places. Another is
the marbled cellar spider. Holocncsnus
pluchei. which was introduced into the
state in the 1970s and has since dis-
placed the once common longbodied
cellar spider. Pholcus phalangioides
(Fig. 6). a longlegged spider that re-
sembles a daddy-longlegs. These spi-
ders are incapable of biting humans
because their fangs are too short to
pierce people's skin: they primarily
cause problems by producing messy
cobwebs.
Various kinds of small hunting spiders
may wander indoors and occasionally.
rather large. hunling.Lype spiders are
discovered in homes or garages. Often
these are fully grown wolf spider or
tarantula males that have reached ma-
turity and are searching for females.
When these spiders are wandering, one
Figure S. Adult common house spider.
10-1
Val size
body)
Figure 6. Adult )ongbodied cellar spider.
or more may accidentally get indoors.
New houses and other structures in
developments may be invaded by wolf
spiders that have lost their usual out-
door living places. The more insects
there are inside a building, the more
likely it is to have spiders living there.
Usually spiders are most abundant in
fall following the first few rains of the
season. Immature .and adult female
burrow-living spiders sometimes wan-
der for a time during the rainy season
if they have had to abandon wet
burrows.
MANAGEMENT
Remember that spiders are primarily
beneficial and their activities should be
encouraged in the garden. Pesticide
control is difficult and rarely neces-
sary. The best approach to controlling
spiders in and around the home is to
remove hiding spots for reclusive spi-
ders such as black widows and regu-
larly clean webs off the house with
brushes and vacuums.
Prevention and
Nonchemical Control
Spiders may enter houses and other
structures through cracks and other
openings. They also may be carried in
on items like plants, firewood, and
boxes- Regular vacuuming or sweeping
of windows, corners of rooms, storage
areas, basements. and other seldomly
used areas helps remove spiders and
their webs. Vacmnmmning spiders can be
I-
May 2000 Spiders
an effective control technique because
their soft bodies usually do not survive
this process. Indoors, a web on which
dust has gathered is an old web that is
no longer being used by a spider.
Individual spiders can also be removed
from indoor areas by placing a jar over
them and slipping a piece of paper
under the jar that then seals off the
opening of the jar when it is lifted up.
To prevent spiders from coming in-
doors, seal cracks in the foundation
and other parts of the structure and
gaps around windows and doors.
Good screening not only will keep out
many spiders but also will discourage
them by keeping out insects that they
must have for food.
In indoor storage areas, place boxes off
the floor and away from walls, when-
ever possible. to help reduce their use-
fulness as a harborage for spiders.
Sealing the boxes with tape will pre-
vent spiders from taking up residence
within. Clean up clutter in garages.
sheds, basements, and other storage
areas. Be sure to wear gloves to avoid
accidental bites.
For more information contact the University
of California Cooperative Extension or agri-
cultural commissioner's office in your coun-
ty. See your phone book for addresses and
phone numbers.
CONTRIBUTORS: R. Veller, P. O'Connor.
Marer, E. Mussen, L. Allen, K. Daane, G.
Hickman, A. Slater, P. Phillips, R. Flanna
EDITOR: B. Ohiendod
TEcHNICAl. EDITOR M. L Flint
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: M. Brush
ILLUSTRATIONS: Fig. 3: J. L. Lockwood;
Fig. 5: V. Winemifler
PRODUCED BY IPM Education and Publi-
cations. UC Statewide IPM Project, Univer-
sity of California, Davis, CA 95616-8620
This Pest Note is available on the World
Wide Web (htlp:IIwww.ipm.ucdavis.edu)
To simplify information, trade names of products
have been used. No endorsement of named prod-
ucts is intended, nor is criticism implied of similar
products that are nut mentioned.
This material is partially based upon work supported
by the Exteitsion Service, U.S. Depa,lment of Agri.
culture, under special project Section 3(d). Integrat-
ed Pest Management.
Outdoors, eliminate places for spiders
to hide and build their webs by keep-
itig the area next to the foundation free
of trash, leaf litter, heavy vegetation.
and other accumulations of materials.
Trimming plant growth away from the
house and other structures will dis-
courage spiders from first taking up
residence near the structure and then
moving indoors. Outdoor lighting at-
tracts insects, which in turn attracts
spiders. If possible. keep lighting fix-
tures off structures and away from
windows and doorways. Sweep, mop.
hose, or vacuum webs and spiders off
buildings regularly. insecticides will
not provide long-term control and
should not generally be used against
spiders outdoors.
Chemical Control
Typically pesticide control of spiders is
difficult unless you actually see the
spider and are able to spray it. There SUGGESTED READING
are various insecticides available in Akre, R. D., and E. P. Calls. 1992.
retail outlets labeled for spider control, Spiders. Pullman: Wash. State Univ.,
including pyrethrins. resmethrin. al- Cooperative Extension Pub). EBI548.
lethrin. or combinations of these prod-
rids. Avoid products containing - Hedges. S. A.. and M. S. Lacey. 1995.
chlorpyrifos or diaz,non because they Field Guide for the Management of Urban
have been implicated in storm water Spiders. Cleveland: Franzak and
contamination. If you spray a spider, it Foster Co.
will be killed only if the spray lands
directly on it; the spray residual does Marer, P. 1991. Residential, Industrial.
not have a long-lasting effect. This and Institutional Pest Control. Oakland:
means a spider can walk over a Univ. Calif. Div. Agile. Nat. Res.
sprayed surface a few days (and in Pub!. 3334.
many cases, a few hours) after treat-
ment and not be affected. Control by Vetter. R. S. Jan. 2000. Pest Notes: Brown
spraying is only temporary unless ac- Recluse and Other Recluse Spiders.
companied by housekeeping. It is just Oakland: Univ. Calif. Div. Agsic. Nat.
as easy and much less toxic to crush Res. Publ. 7468. Also available online
the spider with a rolled up newspaper at: liupi/www.ipm.ucdavis.edw'PMG/
or your shoe or to vacuum it up. sekctncwpest.bome.html
WARNING ON THE USE OF CHEMICALS
Pesticides are poisonous. AJways read and carefully follow all precautions and safety recommendations
given on the container label. Store all chcnvcab in the original labeled containers ina locked cabinet or sited.
away from load or feeds, and out of the reach of children, unauthorized persons, pets, and livestock.
Confine chemicals to the property being treated. Avoid drill onto neighboring properties. especially gardens
containing fruits and/or vegetables ready to be picked.
Dispose of empty containers carefully. Follow label instructions for disposal. Never reuse the containers.
Make sure empty containers are not accessible to children or animals. Never dispose of containers where
they may contaminate water supplies or natural waterways. Do not pow dow,, sink or toilet. Consult your
county agricultural commissioner for correct ways of disposing of excess pesticides. Never bum pesticide
containers.
The University 01 California prohibits discrimination against or harassment of any person employed by or
seeking employment with the University on the basis of race. color, national origin, religion. sex. physical or
mental disability. medical condition (cancer-related or genetic characteristics), ancestry. marital status, age,
sexual orientation, citizenship. or status as a covered veteran (special disabled veteran. Vietnam-era
veteran, or any other veteran who served on active duty during a war or in a campaign or expedition for sittich
a campaign badge has been authorized), university Policy is intended to be consistent with the provisions
of applicable State and Federal laws. Inquiries regarding the University's nondiscrimination policies may be
d,,eclpd to the Affirmative ActionlStall Personnel Services Director. University at California. Agriculture and
Natural Resources, 1111 F,anlilin. 611% Floor. Oakland, CA 94607-5200: (5)0)987-0096,
Sorpt lye dusts containing amorphous
silica gel (silica aerogel) and pyre-
thrins, which can be applied by profes-
sional pest control applicators only,
may be useful in certain indoor situa-
tions. Particles of the dust affect the
outer covering of spiders (and also
insects) that have crawled over a
treated surface, causing them to dry
out. When applied as a dusdike film
and left in place, a sorptive dust pro-
vides permanent protection against
spiders. The dust is most advanta-
geously used in cracks and crevices
and in attics, wall voids, and other
enclosed or unused places.
COMPILED FROM:
Barr. B. A.. C. W. Hickman, and C. S.
Koehler. 1981. Spiders. Oakland: Univ.
Calif. Div. Agile. Nat. Res. Leaflet
2531.
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large paper clips to allow the copper
band to slide as the trunk grows.
Bend the tabs out at a 90 degree angle
from the trunk. The bands need to be
cleaned occasionally. When using
copper bands on planter boxes, be
sure the soil within the boxes is snail-
free before applying bands. If it is not,
handpick the snails and slugs from
the soil after applying the band until
the box is free of these pests.
August 1999 Snails and Slugs
Figure 3. A snail trapcan be made from a board with 1-inch risers.
tion will reduce humidity and moist
surfaces, making the habitat less fa-
vorable for these pests.
Handpicking
Handpicking can be very effective if
done thoroughly on a regular basis. At
first it should be done daily; after the
population has noticeably declined, a
weekly handpicking may be sufficient.
To draw out snails, water the infested
area in The late afternoon. Alter dark
search them out using a flashlight,
pick them up (rubber gloves are
handy when slugs are involved), place
them in a plastic bag, and dispose of
them in the trash; or they can be put
in a bucket with soapy water and then
disposed of in your compost pile. Al-
ternatively, captured snails and slugs
can be crushed and left in the garden.
Traps
Snails and slugs can be trapped under
boards or flower pots positioned
throughout the garden and landscape.
You can make traps from 12" x IS"
boards (or any easy-to-handle size)
raised off the ground by 1-inch run-
ners (Fig. 3). The runners make it easy
for the pests to crawl underneath.
Scrape off the accumulated snails and
slugs daily and destroy them. Crush-
ing is the most common method of
destruction. Do not use salt to destroy
snails and slugs; it will increase soil
salinity. Beer-baited traps have been
used to trap and drown slugs and
snails; however, they attract slugs
and snails within an area of only a few
feet, and must be refilled every few
days to keep the level deep enough to
drown the mollusks. If using beer, it is
more effective fresh than flat. Traps
must have vertical sides to keep the
snails and slugs from crawling Out.
Snail and slug-traps can also be pur-
chased at garden supply stores.
Barriers
Several types of barriers will keep
snails and slugs out of planting beds.
The easiest to maintain, are those
made with copper flashing and
screens. Copper barriers are effective
because it is thought that the copper
reacts with the slime that the snail or
slug secretes, causing a flow of elec-
tricity. Vertical copper screens can be
erected around planting beds. The
screen should be 6 inches tall and
buried several inches below the soil
to prevent slugs from crawling be-
neath the soil.
Copper foil (for example, Snail-Barr)
can be wrapped around planting
boxes, headers, or trunks to repel
snails for several years. When band-
ing trunks, wrap the copper foil
around the trunk, tab side down, and
cut it to allow an 8-inch overlap. Al-
lack one end or the middle of the
band to the trunk with one staple
oriented parallel to the trunk. Overlap
and fasten the ends with one or two
Instead of copper bands, Bordeaux
mixture (a copper sulfate and hy-
drated lime mixture) can be brushed
on trunks to repel snails. One treat-
ment should last about a year. Adding
a commercial spreader may increase
the persistence of Bordeaux mixture
through two seasons. Sticky material
(such as Stickem Green, which con-
tains copper) applied to trunks ex-
cludes snails, slugs, ants, and
flightless species of weevils. Barriers
of dry ashes or diatomaceous earth
heaped in a band] inch high and 3
inches wide around the garden have'
alsb been shown to be effective. How-
ever, these barriers Jose their effcc
liveness after becoming damp and are
therefore difficult to maintain.
Natural Enemies
Snails and slugs have many natural
enemies, including ground beetles,
pathogens, snakes, toads, turtles, and
birds (including ducks, geese, and
chickens), but they are rarely effec-
tive enough to provide satisfactory
control in the garden. A predaceous
snail, the decollate snail (Rurnintr
decollain) has been released in south-
ern California citrus orchards for con-
trol of the brown garden snail and is
providing very effective biological
control. it feeds only on small snails,
not full-sized ones. Because of the
potential impact of the decollate snail
on certain endangered mollusk spe-
cies, it cannot be released outside of
Fresno. Imperial, Kern. Los Angeles,
Madera, Orange, Riverside, Santa Bar-
bara, San Bernardino, San Diego,
Ventura. or Tulare counties in Califor-
nia. Also, dccollafr snnil nury [red on
serif linss. snuill Plants, 811111. bt,wers as
well as be a nuisance whrn they corer
1h' back patio a,: a fuSSy tiny.
*2*
August 1999 Snails and Slugs
Baits
Snail and slug bails can be effective
when used properly in conjunction
with a cultural program incorporating
the other methods discussed above.
Baits will kill decollate snails if they
are present.
Metalde.hyde or metaldehyde/car-
haryl snail bails can be hazardous
and should not be used where chil-
dren and pets cannot be kept away
from them. A recently registered snail
and slug bait, iron phosphate (Sluggo
or Escar-Go), has the advantage of
being sale for use around domestic
animals and wildlife.
Never pile bail in mounds or clumps,
especially those baits that are hazard-
ous, because piling makes a bail
attractive to pets and children. Place-
ment of the bait in a commercial bait
trap reduces hazards to pets and chil-
dren and can protect baits from mois-
ture, but may also reduce their
effectiveness. Thick liquid baits may
persist better under conditions of rain
and sprinklers.
For more information contact the University
of California Cooperative Extension or agri-
cultural commissioner's office in your coun-
ty. See your phone book for addresses and
phone numbers.
CONTRIBUTORS: J. Katlik. P. Phillips. and
N. Sakovich
ILLUSTRATIONS: Figs.1. 2-Valerie
Winemullcs Fig. 3-DANR Leaflet 2530
EDITOR B. Oblcndr,rf
TECHNICAL EDITOR: M. L. Flint
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: M. Brush
PRODUCED BY IPM Education and Publica-
lions, UC Statewide IPM Project. University
of California. Davis. CA 95616-8620.
This Pest Note is available on the World
Wide Web (hllp://www.ipm.ucdavis.cdu)
C1. UC4'IPM
To simplify infonwitinn. trade names of piidur.ti
have I,een used. Ni, endmsr'nn.rt of named products
is iu.tended. nor is critic 'cm implied of similar prod.
utit that we nut mrntiorwd.
1 his matc,ial is panially based upon work supported
by the Fxtens,on 51.ivic r'. U.S Orpancirwut of Agrk ul.
tWC. under spc(iat Iiii.ir.ci S.'Ii,,n 30'. Inte.rait.d
P.nt Manae,ni'i't
The timing of any baiting is critical;
baiting is less effective during very
hot, very dry, or cold times of the
year because snails and slugs are less
active duriog these periods. Irrigate
before applying a bail to promote
snail activity. Make spot applications
instead of widespread applications.
Apply bait in a narrow strip around
sprinklers or in other moist and pro-
tected locations or scatter it along
areas that snails and slugs cross to
get from sheltered areas to the
garden.
Ingestion of the iron phosphate bait,
even in small amounts, will cause
snails and slugs to cease feeding, al-
though it may take several days for
the snails to die. Iron phosphate bait
can be scattered on lawns or on the
soil around any vegetables, omamen-
tals, or fruit trees to be protected. It
breaks down less rapidly than
metaldehyde and may remain effec-
tive for several weeks, even after irri-
gation.
Avoid getting metaldehyde bait on
plants, especially vegetables. Bails
containing only metaldehyde are reli-
able when conditions are dry and hot
or following a rain when snails and
slugs are active. Metaldehyde does
not kill snails and slugs directly un-
less they eat a substantial amount of
it; rather, it stimulates their mucous-
producing cells to overproduce
mucous in an attempt to detoxify the
bait. The cells eventually fail and the
snail dies. When it is sunny or hot,
they die from desiccation. If it is cool
and wet, they may recover if they
ingest a sublethal dose. Do not water
heavily for at least 3 or 4 days after
bait placement; watering will reduce
effectiveness and snails may recover
from metaldehyde poisoning if high
moisture conditions occur. Metalde-
hyde breaks down rapidly when ex-
posed to sunlight; however, Deadline,
a special formulation of metaldehyde,
does not. Deadline holds up well in
wet weather and does not have the
problem with sublethal doses that
other metalde-hyde baits have.
COMPILED FROM
Dreistadt S. H., J. K. Clark, and M. L
Flint. 1994. Pests 4 Landscape Trees
and Shrubs: An Integrated Pest Manage-
ntent Guide. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Div.
Agnc. and Nat. Resources, Publica-
tion 3359.
Flint, M. L 1998. Pests of the Garden
and Small Farm: A Grower's Guide to
Using less Pesticide, 2nd ed. Oakland:
Univ. Calif. Div. Agnc. and Nat. Re-
sources, Publication 3332.
Hesketh, K. A. and W. S. Moore. 1979.
Snails and Slugs in the Home Garden.
Oakland: Univ. Calif. Div. Agric. and
Nat. Resources, Leaflet 2530.
WARNING ON THE USE OF CHEMICALS
Petzlcides are poisonous. Always read and carefully followall precautions and safety recommendations given
on the container label. Store all chemicals in the original tabrkdcontainers in a locked cabinet or shed, away
from food or feeds, and out of the reach of children, unauthorized prisons. pets, and livestock.
Confine chemicals to site properly being treated. Avoid drill onto neighboring properties, especially gardens
containing fruits nd/ot vegetables made to be picked.
Disporeofc.'nipty rontainerscarc'fully. Follow label insiructionsfert ditposal. Never reuse the containers. Make
sure empty containers are not accessible to children or animals. Never dispose of containers where they may
contaminate water supplies or natural waterways. Do not pout down sink or toilet. Consult your county
agricultural commissioner got correct waysnfdispos.ngof CSCCSS pesticides. Ncvri bum pesiicideconiainers.
The University of California prohibits discrimin.itiun against or h.rrassmrnt of any prison employed by or
se'ekingernpluymcn* with the Univesfty on the basis of race. cot',r, natioial origin, religion. sm physical or
mental disability medical condition tcancer.,c'bted or genetic characte,islks.p. ancestry. marital status, age,
several o.ir.ntation, citizenship, or Status as a coveted vtte,an utpvei.il disabled vets,.,,,. Victrea'.s era ve1er3n.
or any other veteran who served on active duty during a war or in a campaign or eapeditiun for which a
campaign badge has been authorized). t)nh'e,skv Policy is intcmjrd to be ..nnsislcnI with the prrwit.'rons of
applicatrlr State and Federal isics. Inquiries regarding the L!nivvn.iie's r.ur,d'rscriminaton puticit's may be
directed ii, tht' All iimath'p M iivruiStjfl Personnel Services Diii'. to.. University of (alifwnia. Agri utiure and
Nait,,al Irsnurei's. It)) Franklin. (,th Flrrur. Oakland. ('A ;c't. i, ;n
Rogs IN THE GARDEN AND LANDSCAPE:
INSECT AND MITE PESTS AND BENEFIcIALS
Integrated Pest Management for Home Gardeners and Landscape Professionals
Roses are among the most intensively
managed plants in many home land-
scapes. Part of this intensive manage-
ment is the frequent application of
pesticides. However, while insects
and mites may attack roses from time
to time, many rose enthusiasts are
able to maintain vigorous plants and
produce high quality blooms with
little or no use of insecticides, espe-
cially in California's dry interior val-
leys. The key is careful selection of
varieties, which vary significantly in
susceptibility to insect and disease
problems, good attention to appropri-
ate cultural practices, and occasional
handpicking or using water to spray
away pests. Keep an eye out for rising
populations of natural enemies that
often rapidly reduce the numbers of
aphids, mites, and other pests. For
management of diseases see UC IPM
Pest Notes Publication 7463. Roses in
She Garden and Landscape: Diseases
and Abiotic Disorders, and for general
tips on cultural practices and weed
control, see UC IPM Pest Notes Publica-
tion 7465, Roses in the Garden and
Landscape: Cultural Practices and
Weed Control.
COMMON INSECT
AND MITE PESTS
Aphids are the most
common insect
pests on roses.
The actual species -
involved depends
i
Ixtual
on where the roses
are grown in the state
and includes the rose aphid,
Macrosiphum rosae, the potato aphid,
M. euphorbiac, and the cotton aphid,
Aphis gossypii among others. Aphids
favor rapidly growing tissue such as
buds and shoots. Low to moderate
levels of aphids do little damage to
plants, although many gardeners are
concerned with their very presence.
Moderate to high populations can
secrete copious amounts of honey-
dew, resulting in the growth of sooty
mold, which blackens leaves. Very
high numbers may kill buds or reduce
flower size. Aphids have iiiaijnatural
enemies including lady beetles, soldier
beetles, and syrphid flies (see the
section on Common Natural Enemies)
that may rapidly reduce increasing
populations. Keep ants out of bushes
with sticky barriers or traps to im-
prove biological control. Lady beetles
often increase in number when aphid
populations are high. The convergent
lady beetle is sold at nurseries for
release against aphids and may reduce
numbers when properly released:
Releasing green lacewings against the
rose aphid has not been shown to
offer significant control in research
trials.
A naturally occurring fungal pathogen
may control aphids when conditions
are wet or humid. In most areas
aphids are normally a problem for
only about 4 to 6 weeks in spring and
early summer before high summer
temperatures reduce their numbers. In
many landscape situations, knocking
aphids off with a forceful spray of
water early in the day is all that is
needed to supplement natural control.
Insecticidal soaps or neem oil can also
be used to increase mortality of
aphids with only moderate impact on
natural enemies. Aphids are easy to
control with insecticides such as the
foliar systemic acephate (Orthene) or
malathion, but such applications are
seldom necessary Soil-applied sys-
temic insecticides may be effective
but are not usually necessary.
Insects and Mites That Cause
Leaves to Stipple or Yellow
Spider mites, Tctrtniychus spp., cause
leaves to be stippled or bleached,
often with webbing, or they may
cause leaves to dry up and fall. They
are tiny (about the size of the period
at the end of this sentence) and are
best seen with the use of a hand lens.
High numbers are usually
associated with dry,
dusty conditions. Spider
mite numbers may
greatly increase if their
many natural enemies
are killed by brood-
spectrum insecticides
applied for other pests.
For instance, applications
of carbaiyl (Sevin) applied to control
other pests are frequently followed by
an increase in mite populations.
Conserving natural enemies, provid-
ing sufficient irrigation, and reducing
dust may all help control mites. Over-
head irrigation or periodic washing of
leaves with water can be very effec-
tive in reducing mite numbers. If
treatment is necessary, spider mites
can be controlled with insecticidal
soap, horticultural oil, or neein oil.
Releases of predator mites have been
used in some situations.
Rose leafhopper,
Edwardsianna
rosae, causes
stippling larger II tIJk than mite stip-
U31 J1WA pling but tends
size) to be a problem I
only in certain
'EST TES Publication 7466
University ofCaIiforni
Division of Agriculture ai-nf Natural Rc.soires Se.tnther 1 999
September 1999 Roses: Insect and Mite Pests and Beneficials
localities. Cast skins and the ab-
sence of webbing on the underside
of leaves is a good indication that
these pests are present. Plants can
tolerate moderate stippling. Use an
insecticidal soap if an infestation is
severe.
Insects That Distort or
Discolor Blossoms
Thrips. Western flower thrips, Fran-
kliniella occidenlalis, and Madrone
thrips, Thrips rnadroni, cause injury
primarily to rose flowers,
causing blossom petals
to streak with brown or
become distorted. The
tiny yellow or black
thrips insects can be
sic) found within the blos-
soms. Thrips problems
are more likely to be severe where
many rose bushes located close to-
gether provide a continuously bloom-
ing habitat. Fragrant, light-colored or
white roses are most often attacked
and can be severely damaged. Culti-
vats with sepals that remain tightly
wrapped around the bud until blooms
open have fewer problems. In most
home garden and landscape situa-
tions, thrips can be tolerated. Fre-
quent dipping and disposal of spent
blooms ipay reduce thrips problems.
Control with insecticides is difficult
because materials are mostly effective
on early developmental stages, which
are commonly found within buds or
flowers where most pesticide applica-
tions cannot penetrate. It should be
noted that western flower thrips can
have a beneficial role as a predator of
spider mites.
Insects That May Chew
Blossoms and/or Leaves
Fuller rose beetle. Adults of Fuller
rose beetle, Asynonychns goa'muili,
chew flowers and foliage leaving
notched or ragged
edges. Adult beetles
are pale brown wee-
vi ls that are about
I 318 inch long. They
are flightless and
hide during 'he day
ZC)often on the under-
sides of leaves; feeding takes place at
night. The larvae are root feeders but
do not seriously damage roses. Low
numbers can be ignored; otherwise,
handpick the beetles off the plant, use
sticky material on stems, and trim
branches that create bridges to walls
and other plants. The adults are diffi-
cult to control with insecticides be-
cause they have a long emergence
period that goes from June to Novem-
ber. Parasitic nematodes may be help-
ful if applied to the soil in early to
midsummer.
Hoplia beetle, Hoplia callipygc, is
about 1/4 inch long and chews holes
mostly in the petals of open flowers. It
is primarily a problem in the Central
Valley from Sacramento south to
Bakersfield. The hoplia beetle prefers
feeding on light-colored roses (white,
pink, apricot, and yellow) but does
not damage leaves. Larvae are root
feeders but do not feed on the roots
of rose plants. There
is only one genera-
i • tion a year and
j .
damage is usually
(actual confined to a 2- to
Are) 4-week period in late
spring. Adult hoplia
beetles can be handpicked or infested
rose blooms clipped off plants. Sprays
are not very effective and should not
be necessary in a garden situation.
Leafcutter bees, I I
Megachile spp., cut tlength of bee)
semicircular holes
in the margins of
leaves and carry
leaf material back
to use in lining their
nests. Bees are impor-
tant pollinators and should not be
killed. Tolerate this pest as there are
no effective controls.
Rose curculio, Mcrhynchites Spp., is a
red to black Snout weevil about 1/4
inch long that prefers yellow and
white roses. It punch
es holes in flowers
and buds and may
I
create ragged
holes in blossoms
or kill the develop- 'actual
ing bud. If weevils '
are numerous, terminal shoots may be
killed as well. Larvae feed within buds,
often killing them before they open.
Handpick adults off plants and destroy
infested buds.. A broad-spectrum insec-
ticide can be applied to kill adults if the
infestation is severe.
Caterpillars such as orange tortnx,
tussock moth, fruittree leafroller, tent
caterpillar, and omnivorous looper may
feed on rose leaves; some of these cat-
erpillars may also tie leaves with silk.
Damage is usually not severe and treat-
ment not usually necessary. Handpick
or dip out rolled leaves. Small leaf-
feeding caterpillars can be killed with
an application of the microbial insecti-
cide Bacillus thrn'ingiensis. Some cater-
pillars, like the tobacco budworm, may
occasionally bore into flower buds.
Look for the caterpillar or its frass in-
side. Prune and destroy damaged buds.
Rose slug. Endelontyia acihiops, is the
black to pale green, sluglike larva of a
sawfly. Unlike pear slu& this species
has apparent legs and looks like a cat-
erpillar. Young larvae
skeletonize the lower
leaf surface while
mature larvae chew
j{Jfj large holes in leaves.
I l. These pests have
many natural ene-
mies. They may be
washed off witha
tactual strong stream of
water or killed with
an application of
insecticidal soap. (Bacillus thuringiensis
will not work because these are wasp
larvae and not the larvae of butterflies
or moths.)
Insects That Cause
Canes to Die Back
Flatheaded borers,
Chrysobofhris spp.,
may kill canes or an
entire plant. Larvae are
white and up to linch
long with enlarged
heads. Adult beetles do
not significantly damage
roses. Eggs tend to be laid
on stressed rose plants, especially in
hark wounds caused by sunburn or
P
September 1999 Roses: Insect and Mile Pests and Beneficials
disease. Remove and destroy infested
material and keep plants healthy by
providing sufficient irrigation and
avoiding excessive summer pruning.
Raspberry horntail, HarliXia crrssoni,
larvae are white, segmented caterpil-
lars up to 1 inch long that can cause
tips of canes to wilt and die in spring,
reducing second cycle blooms. Adults
are wasplike, black or black and yel-
low, and about 112 inch long. Inspect
canes in spring (mid-April to raid-
June) for egg laying incisions or swell-
ings caused by larvae and cut them off
below the infestation. Prune off infest-
ed canes until healthy pith is found.
Scale insects including rose scale,
Auhicaspis rosae, and San Jose scale,
Quadraspidiol us prsniciosus, are occa-
sionally the cause of cane decline or
dieback when numbers are high.
These armored scales can be ob-
served on canes as small, grayish,
round to oval encrusla-
tions, ranging in size from '
If8to1/4 inch. These in-
sects have no legs or an- I'
tennae for most of their
lives and are immobile. A'
In winter, cut back and /1
destroy infested
canes and apply 1
insecticidal oil to
remaining infested canes if necessary.
Scales are attacked by many natural
enemies. Look for exit holes in mature
scale covers, which indicate parasili-
zation.
An Insect Rarely Found
in California
Rose midge, Dasir;tura rhodophaga,
was reported infesting roses in a nurs-
ery in Petaluma, California in August
1996. Rose midges are tiny flies that
lay their eggs inside the sepals of flow-
er buds or on plant tprminals. Hatch-
ing larvae move into flower buds to
feed, leaving the injured buds to with-
er, blacken, and die. Pupation occurs
in the soil and two to four generations
can occur annually. When first report-
ed in 1996, there was widespread fear
that this psi would move rapidly
through the state, caus-
14.
ing severe damage to
roses in gardens and
-912006 . commercial nurseries.
However, few midges
' ':~PTJ were found in 1997.
lactual size) The pest has been
present in central Ore-
gon and Washington for many years
and is not known to be a major pest
there. Hopefully it will not become a
problem in California. Take any sus-
pected infested material to your coun-
ty Agricultural Commissioner for
identification- Don't confuse the rose
midge with the similar looking benefi-
cial midge, Aphidoktes aphidimyza,
which feeds on aphids. Aphidoleles
larvae are found on stem, bud, or leaf
surfaces feeding within aphid colo-
nies, whereas Dasineura larvae are
out of view at the base of developing
buds in terminals.
COMMON NATURAL ENEMIES
OF INSECT AND MITE.
PESTS IN ROSES
Aphid parasites. Tiny parasitic wasps
are very important in the control of
aphids in roses. Adults Jay their eggs
Within the aphid and developing lar-
vae, rapidly immobilizing them. Even-
tually, the parasite kills them and
turns them into bronze or black
crusty, bloated mummies. The para-
site pupates within the mummy and
then cuts a neat round hole and
emerges as a full grown wasp. Once
you see one mum-
my in the aphid
r colony, you
I are likely to
istlual. see more. SizC? Parasitic
wasps are
also important in the control of scale
insects, caterpillars, and many other
insect pests.
Minute pirate bog. Minute pirate
bugs, Onus trisIkolir, are tiny true
hugs with black and white markings
as adults. They are often among the
first predators to ap-
pear in spring, and 31
they feed on mites, factual
insect and mite eggs.
immature scales, and
thrips.
Lacewings. Green lacewings in the
genera Chrysvpa and Chrysoperla are
common natural enemies of aphids
and other soft-bodied in-
sects. The gray-green to
brown alligator-shaped
larvae are the predatory
size)
stage of the Chrysoperla
species. The green lacy-
winged adults feed on
honeydew.
Lady beetles. Many different red and
black lady beetle species are predators
of aphids; the most common is the
convergent lady beetle. 1-lippodamia
convergens (see drawing). Another
common species in the garden is the
multi-colored Asian lady beetle, Harmo-
nic axyridis. These lady beetles have
the advantage of feeding primarily on
aphids and are predators in both the
adult and larval stages. Look for the
black, alligator-shaped larva with or-
ange dots and the
oblong, yellow eggs
that are laid on end • . j in groups. Releases
of commercially size)
available conver-
gent lady beetles
can reduce aphid
numbers. However,
large numbers must
he released on each
individual rose plant.size)
Mist lady beetles with
a water spray before release. Make
releases in the evening at dusk by plac-
ing beetles on canes at the base of
plants. Wet plants first with a line
spray of water. Expect 90 of the lady
beetles to fly away in the first 24 hours.
All released ladv beetles are unlikely to
lay eggs and will fly away once aphid
populations have been substantially
reduced.
September 1999 Roses: Insect and Mite Pests and Beneficials
Leatherwings or soldier beetles.
These moderate to large-sized beetles
in the Cantharid family have leather-
like dark wings and orange or red
heads and thoraxes. They feed on
aphids and are very common on
roses. Many people mistake them for
pests, but they are predaceous both
as adults and larvae (in the soil).
Sometimes they leave dark splotches
of excrement on leaves.
REFERENCES
Dreistadt, S. H. 1994. Pcts of Land-
scape Trees and Shrubs. Oakland:
Univ. Calif. Div. Agric. Nat. Res. Publ.
3359.
Flint, M. 1., and S. H. Dreistadt. 1998.
Natural Enemies Handlrnuk. Oakland:
Univ. Calif. Div. Agric. Nat. Res. Pub].
3386.
Karlik, J., P. B. Goodell, and
C. W. Osteen. 1995. Improved mite
sampling may reduce acancide use in
roses. Calif Agric. 49(3):38-40.
UC IPM Pest Notes: various pests of
gardens and landscape. World Wide
Web (bttp: I / www.ipin.ucdavis.edu)
and Univ. Calif. Div. Agric Nat. Res.
WE
For more information contact the University
of California Cciopetatire Extension or
agricuhural commissioner's office in you:
county. See your phone book for addresses
and phone numbers.
AUTHORS: Mary Louise Flint and John Karlik
ILLUSTRATIONS:
Child, Ashley- Fuller rose beetle, Hoplia
beetle; Lacewing larva; Lady beetle adult;
Lady beetle larva; Leafcutter bee; Rose
curcuho Rose leafhopper, Scale insects;
Syrphid fly larva
Flint, M. L, and S. H. Dreistadt. 1998.
Natural Enemies Handbook Oaklan&
Univ. Calif. Div. Agric & Natural Res.,*
Pub[. 3386: Aphid parasite (Table 7-1.A);
Lacewing adult IFig. 8-13); Minute pirate
bug (Table 8.2.A); Syiphid adrift (Table 8-
3M
Packard, A. S. 1876. Guide to the Study of
Insects. New Yo.k Henry Holt & Co.: Rose
slug (Fig. 148)
Sanderson, E. 1)., and C. F. Jackson. 1912.
(kmentary (otornolcgy. Boston: Ginn &
Co.: Flatheaded borer (Fig. 208)
WARNING ON THE USE OF CHEMICALS
Pesticides sic poisonous. Always read arid carefully folluwall precautions and safers' recommendations given
ontiw container tatxL Slorr all chemicals in theorigirsal labeled containers in a locked cabinet or shed, away
horn food or leerJs. :,nd our of the reach of children, unauthorized persons. pets, and livesiritk.
Confine churnicals to the property being treated. Avoid drift onto neighboring properties. especially gardens
containing Fruits and'or s'rgeribles ready to be picked.
Dispose of empty containriscarciully. Follow label instructions fordispusal. Never reusethe containers. Make
sure empty contair,t'ss arc not accessible to children or animals. Never dispose of containers where they may
contaminate water supplies or natural waterways. Do not pour down sink or toilet. Cumuli yaw county
aricuhural commissions-i fo, correct ways of disposirigolexcess pesticides. New, burn pesticide containers.
The UnivcriIv of California prohibits discrimination against or l,ar.iririr,nt ill any person employed by or
writing employment wilt, it..' Universiw on the basis of race, color, national origin, religion. sex, physical or
mirat disability, mcdh..l condition icancer.rebred or genetic characte'risaksi, ansestry. marital status, age,
sexual orknlariun. c itierjehip. or status as a covered veteran Ispecirul diirl,k'd vets-ran. Vietnam era veteran,
C" any tither veteran wln served on active duty during a war or in a campaign or esprdititm (or which
r.2mp aigis badge has been ar.rhorizcd,. University Policy is intended ID be t osisisteni with the provisions of
applicahk 5r.t,' .,n.J I .',fc.al laws. Inquiries regarding the University's nssndisrris,,inarion policies may he
diii's red ii, it,,' .AlIi.rruris,' Acrir.niStaf( Pessurwel Services Direr tor. thirvr',itv of California. Agriculture and
Natural Re'o,srr.e' it ti lr.inkhin, 6th Hoot. Oakland, CA '141,0' 320(1; 1510' 98.flQ96
Syrphid flies. Syrphids, sometimes
called flower flies or hover flies, are
important predators of aphids and
very common on roses. Adults, which
superficially resemble wasps, feed on
nectar and pollen before reproducing
and are often seen hovering above
flowers. Larvae, often found within
aphid colonies, are legless and mag-
got shaped. There
T are many Species in
I California and they
I vary in color from
factual dull brown or
yellow to bright
green, but most
have a yellow
longitudinal
stripe on the
back. Don't mis-
take them for moth
size) or butterfly larvae!
Predaceous mites. A number of pred-
atory mites feed on spider mites, fre-
quently keeping them at tolerable
levels. Frdatory mites can be distin-
guished from the plant-feeding spider
mites by the absence of the two spots
on either side of the body, their pear
shape, and their more active habits.
Compared to the plant-feeding spe-
cies of mites that remain in one loca-
tion feeding, predatory irntes move
rapidly around the leaf looking for
prey. Because they are so small, a
hand lens is helpful in viewing them.
Spiders. All spiders are predators and
many contribute significantly to bio-
logical control. Many tpes of spiders
including crab spiders, jumping spi-
ders, cobweb spiders, and the orb-
wearers occur in landscapes.
Sasscher, E. R., and A. D. Borden. 1919.
The Rose Midge. Washington, D.C.: USDA,
Bulletin 778: Rose midge
UC IPM Pest Notes. Oakland: Univ. Calif.
Div. Agric. and Nat. Resowses Aphid
(Publ. 7404, Jan. 1995); Raspberry horntail
larva (Publ. 7407, )an. 1995); Spider mite
(Pubt.7429, )an. 1995); Thnps (Publ. 30,
Feb 19%)
EDffOR B. Ohtendod
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: M. Brush
PRODUCED BY, IPM Education and Publi-
cations, UC Statewide IPM Project, Unive,-
siry of California, Davis, CA 95616-8620
This Pest Note is available on
the World Wide Web
(blIp: llwww.ipm.ucdavh.edu)
n
UC+IPM
To sirnphfy information. trade names of products
have been used. No endorsement of named
products is intended, nor is criticism implied of
similar products that are not mentioned.
This material is partially based upon work
supported by the Extension Service. U.S. Depart-
orient of Agriculture. under special project 5e.flon
3W). Integrated Pct Management.
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S10.9S.N.-IN-iiM•7
May 2001 Lawn Insects
beetles. Other common arthropods that
are primarily decomposers and do no
significant injury 10 turfgrass include
springlails and millipedes.
MANAGING LAWN
INSECTS
Good cultural practices are the primary
method for managing insect damage to
lawns. Growing appropriate grass spe-
cies for a particular location and pro-
viding lawns with proper care are
especially important. Practices such as
irrigating and fertilizing have a major
impact on lawn health. Physical con-
trols, such as thatch removal, choice of
mowing height and frequency, and
providing grass with more light by
pruning tree branches, are also impor-
tant in certain situations. Naturally
occurring biological control may limit
some insect pests. Most home lawns in
California do not need to be treated
with insecticides if proper cultural
practices are followed. Insecticides
should never be applied unless a pest
is identified and detected at damaging
levels. If insecticides are necessary,
choose materials that have minimum
impacts on beneficial organisms and
the environment.
Preventing Pest Problems
The best way to prevent damage from
lawn pests is to keep grass healthy.
Healthy lawns require few, if any, in-
secticide treatments. Also, if the
turfgrass is under stress and a pesticide
is applied, it stands a greater chance of
suffering phytotoxic damage from the
pesticide itself. The publications on
managing your lawn listed in "Sug-
gested Reading" give detailed inlorma-
lion on how to grow a healthy lawn.
Choose Appropriate Varieties. There
are a number of grasses available for
planting in California. These grasses
are often referred to as either cool-sea-
son grasses (examples include annual
ryegrass, bentgz'ass, fine fescue, Ken-
tucky bluegrass, perennial iycgrass,
and tall fescue) or warm-season grasses
(bermudagrass, kikuyugrass, St.
Augustmegrass, and zoysiagrass).
Warm-season grasses produce most of
their growth during summer and usu-
ally have a dormant period when they
turn brown during winter. Cool-season
grasses are green year-round, but pro-
duce most of their growth in spring
and fall. The type of grass and the vari-
eties within each type vary in their
shade tolerance, salinity tolerance, wa-
ter needs, disease resistance, and cul-
tural needs. A formerly thriving lawn
variety may decline with changes in
light, such as more or less shade
caused by growth or removal of nearby
trees. These factors are outlined in Se-
lecting She Bcsl Tiarfgross, listed in "Sug-
gested Reading." Selection of the
appropriate grass species and variety
will allow you to grow a hardy lawn
with minimal maintenance inputs.
Care for Lawns Properly. Inappropri-
ate irrigation is the most common
cause-of lawn damage. Overwalermg
(shallow, frequent sprinkling) retards
deep root growth and increases lawn
Table 1. Some Lawn Pests, Appearance of Their Damage, and Cultural Control Methods.
Pest (Scientific name) Hosts ,
Damage appearance Cultural control
armyworms, cutworms all grasses, dichondra leaves and base of leaves chewed and cut reduce thatch; eliminate soggy
(Pscudakl,a unipuncta, beginning in small, irregular spots that can areas; overseed lawn
Pci jdronsa saucie, Agrctfis spp.) spread to patches extending many feet in
width
bilibugs all grasses brown, thin, dying grass, beginning in irrigate and fertilize adequately;
(Sphcnopborus spp.) small, irregular spots that can spread to increase mowing height
- patches extending many feet in width
black turfgrass ataenius annual bluegrass, brown, dying grass, few roots; lawn is increase mowing height; aerate to
(Atacnius sprrtulus) bentgzass, iyegrass, easily peeled off soil improve root growth
Kentucky bluegrass
fiery skipper bcntgrass, I- to 2-inch-diameter spots of lawn turn reduce thatch; ove,sevd with grass
(Hykphita phylvus) bermudagrass, brown; spots may join to form large, species that are not preferred
Sr. Augustinegrass irregular dead patches; leaves chewed or
missing
lawn moths, sod webworms all grasses. especially lawn brown; leaves chewed or missing reduce thatch; irrigate and fertilize
(Crambus sperrvdflus. Tchama benigrass, bluegrass, appropriately
lunijoteI1a) clovers
southern chinch bug primarily St. irrc;ular patches of lawn turn yellowish, reduce thatch; reduce nitrogen
(IUissi,s inu?aris) Augustinegrass then brown and begin dying during hot fertilization; irrigate adequately;
weather plant resistant varieties such as
Floralawn, Floratain, or FX-lOjf
growing St. Augustinegrass
white grubs—inunatures of all gras.scs. especially brown dying grass; lawn can he rolled up irrigate and fertilize appropriately;
masked chafers (Cyc?ocvphala bluegrass. icgrass if heavily infested overeed lawn
spp.). May and June beetles
(Phv!k.pheSa spp.)
Some pests specific to bermudagrass and dichondra art' nut included in this table. Other invertebrates that ocvasionallv damage lawns
include crane flies, tnt flies and other flies, flea beetl, k'afhoppers. Lucerne moths, plant hugs. mealybugs, scale insects, and mites.
Adapted from Ali and Elmore (1989) and Costa et at. (2(100): for more information con-tilt publications in "Suggested Reading."
May 2001 Lawn Insects
susceptibility to stress. Poorly main-
tained sprinklers can apply too much
water in c&.rlajn spots while under-
watering other areas. Brown spots
from uneven water applications occur
frequently and are often caused by im-
properly spaced irrigation heads,
sunken or tilted heads, or unmatched
heads that apply differing amounts of
water. Correcting these physical prob-
lems with irrigation systems can de-
crease water waste by over 50%,
decrease water bills, and most impor-
tantly, improve the health of your
lawn. Lawns should be irrigated
deeply and no more often than twice a
week.
Appropriate fertilization encourages a
dense, thick lawn that allows grass to
tolerate some insect feeding. The ap-
propriate timing and amount of fertil-
izer (primarily nitrogen) varies
depending on factors including season,
grass species, and local growing condi-
tions. In general, most California
grasses used for lawns require from 3
to 6 pounds of actual nitrogen over a
l,000-square-foot area annually during
their active growing season.
Keep the blades on your lawn mower
sharp and cut your turf at a mowing
height appropriate for the type of lawn
grass to minimize depletion of food
reserves needed to outgrow insect in-
jury. Mowing frequency and height
depend on grass species, season, and
the particular use of that lawn. Cool-
season lawns have suggested mowing
heights of 1312 to 21z inches, while
warm-season lawns should be mowed
to a height of 3/4 to 1 inch. No more
than one-third of the grass height
should be removed at one time.
Lawns also benefit from aeration. To
increase water penetration and reduce
soil compaction, periodically remove
soil plugs using hollow tines. Thatch,
which is the layer of undccomposed
organic material on the soil surface,
can build up and result in poor water,
fertilizer, and air penetration. Thatch
that is greater than Y2 inch thick en-
courages caterpillar and chinch bug
populations. Thatch also reduces insec-
ticide efficacy because insecticides can-
not penetrate to reach root- feeding
insects Prevent thatch by avoiding ex-
cess nitrogen application, irrigating
deeply and infrequently, and minimiz-
ing the use of lawn pesticides that can
reduce populations of microorganisms
responsible for decomposing the
thatch. If it is more than 'I inch thick
physically remove thatch with a gar-
den rake, mechanical dethatcher, verti-
cal mower, or power rake. Other
methods include topdressing lawns by
adding a thin layer (118 1I4 inch) of soil
and raking or sweeping it into the
thatch to encourage decomposer
microorganisms. Core aerification also
mixes soil into thatch, speeding
decomposition.
Biological Control
Certain insects, other invertebrates,
and microorganisms that occur natu-
rally in lawns feed on or parasitize
lawn pests. This type of control, called
biological conbol, may help to prevent
many lawn-dwelling insects from be-
coming pests. To protect beneficial in-
sects, avoid using broad-spectrum
pesticides that will kill them along
with thepests. Biological pesticides
containing organisms such as Bacillus
lhuringiensis (Bt) and beneficial nema-
todes are commercially available for
controlling specific lawn insects. These
materials have minimal impacts on
natural enemies of insect pests and
other beneficial organisms such as
earthworms. Birds, moles, and other
vertebrates also feed on lawn insects
from time to time.
Detecting Problems in
Your Lawn
Examine your lawn weekly or just be-
fore each mowing to detect problem
areas. At the same time, look for
weeds. A dense stand of healthy grass
prevents most weeds from growing, so
abundant weed growth indicates that
the lawn is unhealthy and .susceptible
to other pests. New turfgrass is espe-
cially vulnerable to problems and has
different irrigation and fertilizer re-
quirements than established turfgrass.
An indication that a lawn may be in-
fested with insects is when the adults
(e.g., moth or beetle stage) of pests are
drawn to lights at night or when verti
brate predators (birds, raccoons, or
skunks) are digging in your lawn for
caterpillars and grubs. However, the
insects coming to light may be drawn
from far awavand vertebrate activity
is not a foolproof indicator. They may
be feeding on earthworms instead of
insects; also, vertebrates will return to
where they previously found food, so
they may dig in lawns even if insect
pests are no longer abundant.
If you observe damage, the next step is
to determine the actual cause. If you
think the damage is caused by insects,
confirm your suspicions by looking for
the pest. The most accurate way to do
this is by using either the drench test or
by inspecting around roots (Table 2).
The drench test is effective for detect-
ing chinch bugs and caterpillars in-
cluding armyworms, cutworms, and
sod webworms, but it does not detect
grubs. Locating and correctly identify-
ing a pest is important because differ-
ent pests require different treatment
materials, timing, and application
methods.
Identify the insects you find using de-
scriptions in this publication (Fig. I)
and other publications such as Hand-
book of Turfgrass Pests or Turfgyass Pests
listed in "Suggested Reading." The [IC
IPM Pest Management Guidelines:
Turfgrass is available on the World
Wide Web (wwiu.ipm.ucda-'is.eduIPMGI
sd cc? newpest. turf,grass.html) and con-
tains color photos of some turfgrass
pests. After identifying the insects,
count the number of each type of insect
found. Some of the insects you find
may be beneficial or nondasnaging. In
home lawns, you usually need only to
be concerned with the insects listed in
Table 1.
Remember that the mere presence of
an insect pest does not imply that it is
the cause of unhealthy lawns or that an
insecticide treatment is needed. It is
normal to find a few pest insects in any
healthy lawn. Generally treatments are
not recommended unless the popula-
tion level of the insect pest reaches a
predetermined level called a threshold
(Table 2). Thresholds are the popula-
tion levels at which the number of in-
sects feeding exceeds the ability of a
healthy lawn to withstand the damage
they cause. For example, an insecticide
uuativ is nut needed unless there are
more than about S armyworms and
cutworms or 15 lawn moth larvae per
May 2001 Lawn Insects
Table 2. Lawn Pest Detection Methoils, Treatment Targets, Thresholds, and IPM-compatible Materials.
Suggested
treatment JIM-compatible
Insect Detection method Treatment target threshold materials
armvworms, drench test for fat, dull gray, green, or brownish crowns, leaves, 5/yd' A, III, I'. Sc
cutworms larvae up 1o2 inches long; inspect outdoor lights thatch
around dawn for 13 /4.inch brownish to gray moths
billbiigs dig around roots for whitish. C-shaped, legless grubs crown, roots 1/ft2 I. Sc
up to 'Ia inch long with reddish heads; inspect
outdoor lights around dawn for /i inch brownish to
gray snout beetles
black turfgrass dig around roots for whitish, C-shaped grubs up to roots, thatch soil 40/11 Hb, I, Sc
ataenius (see also 'Is inch long with 6 legs and reddish heads; inspect interface
white grubs) outdoor lights around dawn for shiny black adults 'I
s inch long
chinch bug, southern drench test or inspect around grass bases for reddish, crowns, stems 135/yd' or P
purple, black, or gray bugs up to '/2 inch long 15 nymphs &
adults/1t2
lawn moths (sod drench test for slender, grayish larvae up t03/4 inch crowns, leaves. 15/yd2 A. Ut, P. Sc
webworms) long; whitish or brownish moths up to 3/ inch long thatch
fly when grass is disturbed
skipper, fiery drench test for larvae up to) inch long with pink- leaves, stems 15/yd2 - BI, Hb, P
green body and red and black head; orangish
butterflies 1 inch wide with knobbed antennae feed a,
flowers; mere presence of this insect does not warrant
control
white pubs (the dig around roots in late winter or summer for whitish roots. 6/ft: Jib, I, SS
inunatwes of masked to yellow. wrinkled. C-shaped grub up to V/a inches
chafer-, May and June long with 6 legs and a reddish head; look for
beetles; see also black yellowish brown adults 'Is inch long.
harfgrass ataenius)
Check current labels for permitted uses and proper application methods.
Adapted from Ali and Elmore (1989) and Costa ci al. (2000).
IPM-compatible materials Predaceous nematodes
A azadirachtin or necm (Safer )lioNevrn) - Hb = Hegerorhabdilis bacfrriaplwra
Bt = Bacillus fhvvinirnss (UT WormKiller, Caterpillar Clobber) Sc = Stciuernemo caTpopsae
irnidacloprid (Bayer Advanced Lawn Grub Control, GrubEx, etc.) Sg = Sfrmnrnwmsi z105e7
P = pvrethrin (Safer Yard & Garden Insect Killer)
.cquare yard. Sample several different
areas of the lawn to better estimate
populations overall, especially if num-
bers are dose to suggested thresholds.
Drench Test. To detect chinch bugs,
adult billbugs, and caterpillars includ-
ing armyworms, cutworms, and larvae
of lawn moths (sod webworms), per-
form a drench test by mixing I to 2 fluid
ounces (2-4 tablespoons) of dishwash-
ing liquid (such as Lemon Joy) to a gal-
lon of water. If you are using a concen-
Irate (i.e., Ultra) version of a dish-
washing liquid, 1I2 tablespoons per gal-
lon of water is adequate. Two gallons
may be required where soils are dry.
Apply the solution to J square varil of
lawn as evenly as possible using a
sprinkling can (Fig. 2).'restan wea that
includes both relatively healthy grass
and adjoining unhealthy grass. The
drench will cause insects to move to
the surface. During the next JO min-
utes, identify and count the number of
pest insects.
Inspect Around Roots. The drench test
does not indicate the presence of bill-
hug larvae, black turfg,ass ataenius
larvae, or white grubs (masked cholera,
May beetles, and June beetles). To de-
tect white grubs, dig or cut beneath
thatch (Fig. 3) and examine the soil
around roots and crowns (where roots
and stems meet). Look for the while.
legless larvae of billbugs (a weevil) or
the c-shaped, six-legged larvae of
scarab beetles such as black turfgrass
ataenius and masked chafers. When
these are numerous, roots arc eaten
away and turf often can be rolled back
like a carpet. If you find more than
about one billbug larva, six white
grubs, or 40 black turlgross ataenius
grubs per square foot, control may be
needed.
TREATMENT
If cultural practices are not enough to
prevent damage, and a drench lest or
root inspection indicates treatment is
warranted, choose selective, least toxic,
IPM-compatible, products (Table 2)
whenever possible to control pests. The
microbial insecticide Bacillus
lliuringicusis and insect-killing nema-
tode products that can be applied like
insecticides have minimal negative im-
pacts on nontarget organisms. The in-
secticides azadirachtin, pyrethrum
(pvrethrins), and imid.icloprid are also
Al
(b)
Figure 3. Detect billbug larvae, black tudg,ass ataenius, and white grubs by dig-
ging around the root zone with a hand trowel. Alternatively, make three connected
cuts through grass and thatch in the shape of a capital "I" (a); then lift back (b) and
inspect underneath. if the area examined is 6 inches long and 4 inches wide, inspect
six such areas to uncover a total of square foot and compare the number of insects
discovered to the suggested thresholds.
May 2001 Lawn Insects
Figure 2. Detect chinch bugs, adult bill-
bugs, and caterpillars by drenching a 1-
square-yard area of lawn with a soap
solution to irritate insects so they come
to the surface.
relatively safe products for lawn insect
management. Each of these products is
effective only on certain pests and all
must be properly timed and applied to
be effective. Avoid the use of chlorpy-
rifos and diazinon; urban use of these
materials has been identified as a
source of pollution in California's
creeks and rivers. Other broad-
spectrum insecticides, including car-
baryl, pyrethroids, and acephate, are
available. However, these materials
pose risks for beneficial and nontarget
organisms. Use them only when JIM-
compatible insecticides cannot control
the infestation.
Avoid the use of lawn fertilizer prod-
ucts that also contain insecticides for
preventative treatment. Insecticide
treatment at the time of fertilizing is
usually not justified and may reduce
the presence of beneficial insects.
Mow the lawn and reduce excess
thatch (greater than 117 inch) before
applying insecticides. Unless otherwise
directed on the product label, irrigate
and allow grass blades to dry before
treating caterpillars and other insects
that feed on grass blacks and sterns. Do
not treat if rainfall is expected and do
not irrigate for at least 48 hours after
spraying for leaf-feeders to allow the
insecticide to remain on grass blades as
long as possible. When treating white
grubs and other root-feeders, wait to
irrigate until after application so the
insecticide is moved down into the
soil.
Certain chemicals may injure lawns,
especially if used on seedlings, when
temperatures are too high, or if grass is
stressed. Injury may also result from
excess amounts, repeated applications,
the wrong formulation, or from mixing
incompatible materials. Inert ingredi-
ents, such as wetters, spreaders, emul-
sifiers, diluents, and solvents, may also
injure lawns.
Bacillus thuringiensis (BI). Bt kills only
caterpillars. When infected with Bt,
caterpillars stop feeding within a day
and usually die within a few days.
Unlike broad-spectrum insecticides
that kill on contact, caterpillars must
eat Bt-sprayed foliage to be killed, so
proper Liming and thorough spray cov-
erage are very important. Bt is most
effective on caterpillars when they are
young. Once the caterpillars become
large they are harder to kill with this
material, and other control measures
may be necessary. Apply Bt during
warm, dry weather when caterpillars
are feeding actively. Sunlight inacti-
vates Bt on foliage, so make applica-
tions in the evening. Repeat treatment
after. about 7 to 10 days.
Nematodes. Insect-attacking nema-
todes can be applied to control cater-
pillars or grubs. Each nematode species
is effective on a different range of
pests. Select the nematode species most
effective against the target pest(s)
(Table 2). All nematode species are
most effective when applied during the
early part of the season For that pest
(Fig. 4) when grubs or caterpillars are
active. A secondapplication about 2
weeks after the first increases the likeli-
hood that nematodes will reproduce
and provide long-term pest control.
Irrigate before and alter application.
Apply to warm (at least 6(°F), moist
but not soggy soil. Several irrigations
may be needed during the 2 weeks al-
ter each application to keep soil moist.
Because nematodes are killed by light
and heat, apply them in the evening,
especially in hot areas.
Nematodes usually must be mail or-
dered. Because they are very perish-
able, store them as directed (usually
under cool, dark conditions) and do not
store them for long periods. Purchase
from a reputable producer or supplier
of fresh nematodes: Sources include
those listed in the free pamphlet Suppli-
ers of Beneficial Organisms in North
America available from the California
Department of Pesticide Regulation,
830 K Street, Sacramento, CA 95814-
3510, phone 916-324-4100, or on the
World Wide Web at www.cdpr.ca.goz'I
dprncwsiilm. Suppliers and details on
nematode use are also available at http:I
/www2.oardc.ohio-stote.edu/neinatodes.
Azadirachtin. The botanical pesticide
azadirachtin is extracted from the seeds
of the neem tree. It is used to control
cutworms, armyworrns, and the larvae
of lawn moths. Azadirachtin is ab-
sorbed by the plant and is able to move
to a limited degree within the plant.
Because azadirachtin acts partly as an
insect growth regulator (i.e., it prevents
the caterpillar from reaching maturity),
most caterpillars are not killed until
*5*
May 2001 Lawn Insects
Figure 4. Approximate times to monitor for some lawn insects. Actual treatment time
vanes depending in part on location, temperature, rainfall, and the specific insecticide
used. Before applying an insecticide, monitor for insects to confirm pest presence and
that their numbers exceed thresholds.
Insect Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
nnnyworm.cutwofln .................
bilibug _____________
black turfgrass atacnius _________________
chinch bug ------------
fieiy-kipper
sod wcbworm, lawn moth
recover from temporary effects of expo-
sure to pyrethrum unless piperonyl
butoxide is added.
SUGGESTED READING
All, A. 0., and C. L. Elmore, eds. 1989.
Turfsra.cs Pests. Oakland: Univ. Calif.
Agric. Nat. Res. Publ. 4053.
Brandenburg, R. L., and M. C. Villani,
eds. 3995. Handbook of Turfgrass Pests.
Lanham, MD: Entomological Society of
America.
while grub
several days after application, and
azadirachtin's effectiveness is not im-
mediately apparent.
For more information contact the University
of California Cooperative Extension or agri-
cultural commissioner's office in your coun-
ty. See your phone book for addresses and
phone numbers.
ALflBORS: S. H. Dicistadt. M. A. Harivan-
di, H. Costa, and J. Harlin
EDITOR B. Ohlendorf
TECHNICAL EDflOR M. L Flint
T)ESIGN AND PRODUCTION: M. Brush
ILLUSTRATIONS: Fig.]: Adult chafer from
A. S. Packard. 1876. Guide to She Study of In-
sects. New York: Henry Holt, Sod webwurm
by R. M. Bohart. 1947. Hhlgardin 17(8)275;
other insect line art by Chittenden, Marlatt,
or Webster from Sanderson. E. D. and C. F.
Jackson. 1912. ElcmautinyEntoinok'gv. Bos-
ton: Ginn.; Fig. 2: C. M. Dewecs; Fig. 3:
adapted from Gelentcr. W. D. Calif.Fair-
ways. Jan-Feb: pp. 6-8; Fig. 4: adapted from
AM. A. 0.. and C. L Elmore, eds. 1989. Turf-
grass Pests. Oakland: UC DANR Publ. 4053.
PRODUCED BY 1PM Education and Publi-
cations. UC Statewide IPM Project. Univer-
sity of California. Davis. CA 95616-8620
This Pest Note is available on the World
Wide Web (bttp-J/www.ipm.ucdavis.edu)
UC Ir PEERLA uc+lpm
0
REVIEWED
This publication has been anonymously peer
reviewed for technical accuracy by University ci
California scientists and other qualified protes-
sionats This review process was managed by the
ANR Associate Editor for Pest Management.
To simplify nilorma.Ikn,r, trade names of prudutis
have been used. No endorsement of named produ1s
isisitrnskd. nor Lcncnmirnplhdotcimilsrproducts
that an not mtntiu,wd.
This material is partially based upon work
supporlid by the Exiers icniServicr. U.S. l)epa:tment
of Agrkultur. uridri special ,wjecI Section t(dk
lntnpatrd Pest Kian.srnsrnI.
Isnidadoprid. Imidacloprid is a
chioronicotinyl insecticide that moves
systemically within plants. It is effec-
tive against black turf grass ataenius,
white grubs, and weevils. Imidacloprid
has relatively long persistence. Because
initial effectiveness can be delayed for
days after application, it may be best to
apply it during the early part of the
season (Fig. 4), when the grubs are in
their earliest stages. In lawns that had
darnagmg infestations the previous
year, make treatments when adults are
found in early to midsummer. 11 lawns
are heavily infested with damaging
levels of grubs later in the season, a
more quick-acting, broad-spectrum in-
secticide may be necessary.
Pyretluin. Pyrethrum, a botanical from
flowers of certain chrysanthemums,
contains pyret}uins, which are toxic to
insects. Many pyrethrurn products in-
dude the synergist piperonyl butoxide.
Insects may only be temporarily para-
lyzed (knocked-down) and pests may
Costa, H., R. Cowles, J. Hartin, K. Kido,
and H. Kaya. 2000. Insects and Mites in
UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines:
Turfgra.cs. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Agric.
Nat. Res. Publ. 3365-T.
Flint, M. L, and S. H. Drcistadt. 1998.
Natural Enemies Handbook: The Illustrated
Guide to Biological Pest Control. Oakland:
Univ. Calif. Agric. Nat. Res. Pub!. 3386.
Ha.rivandi, M. A., and V. A. Gibeault.
1996. Managing Lawns in Shade. Oak-
land: Univ. Calif. Agric. Nat. Res. Publ.
7234.
Harivandi, M. A., and V. -A. Gibeault.
1996. Mowing Your Lawn and Grass-
cycling. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Agric.
Nat. Res. Pub!. 8006.
Hanvaridi, M. A., and V. A. Gibeault.
1997. Managing Lawns on Heavy Soils.
Oakland: Univ. Calif. Agric. Nat. Res.
Publ. 7227.
Harivandi, M. A., W. B. Davis, V. A.
Gibeault, M. J. Henry, J. A. Van Darn, L
Wu, and V. B. Younger. 3990. Selecting
the Best Turfgrass. Oakland: Univ. Calif.
Agric. Nat. Res. Leaflet 2589.
WARNING ON THE USE OF CHEMICALS
res,k1ds are poisonous Always read and carefully follow all precautions and safety ,cconunendatiurie
given on the container label. Sore all chemicals in the original labeled containers in a locked cabinci or shert
away horn food or feeds. and out of tiw reach oi drildien unauthorized persona, pcm and livestock.
Confine chemicals to the property being bested. Avoid dull onto neighbcidng prupemiws. cspeci.rDy
girders containing fruits or vegetables ready tote picked.
Do not place containers containing pesticide in the trash nor pour pesticides down sinli or toilet. Either use
tisepesticide according tit the, label or take unwanted pesticides to a Householsl Hazardous War-Ic Collection
site. Contact your county agricultural conurussioner for additional infotmatiunon safe Containte disposal and
for thrlocationf the Hazardous Waste Collection site nearest you. Dlepec of empty containers by following
label diyectins. Never reuse or burn the containers or dispose p5 them its such a m.imrr that they may
cornazrimasr warn suppiacs or nanura. .valcgwwys
The Universi of California prohibits discrimination against or harassment uS any person cmnrkryed by or
seeking rmnpkrement with the University on the basis of nec. color. national origin. religion. sen. physical or
mental disability, medical cosrditis.n (cancer.,elatril or gvsssiic characie,krtses), ancestry. marital status, age.
sensual orientation. citizenship. or status as a covered veteran (special decabltrd veteran. Vietnam-era vt4eran,
or any other veteran who served on active duty during a war or in a campaign or expedition fist which a
campaign badge liar been authorized). University Pot ics. is intended to be coitrineent with the provisions of
applicable Stair and Federal laws. Inquiries regarding the Utsiivrsitys nondiscriminatio,s policies may be
directed In ihc,flinnative Action/Stall l'eronnelSerekes Director. Ussiycr.itvof California. Agriruttun-and
Natural Rsnourtes. 300 Lakeside 1k.. Oakland. CA 04612-N450.1510) 91174109b. -
. 6
74
Ks
PUPA N
Figure 1. Life cycle of the fly.
FLIES
Integrated Pest Management In and Around the l-iome
Of the thousands of species of flies,
only a few are common pests in and
around the home. Pour of the more
frequent pests are the house fly
(Musca domes tica). the face fly (Musca
outumnalLc), the stable fly (SSo'noxys
calcitrans), and the little house fly
(Fannia spp.). These pests breed in
filthy locations from which they can
contaminate food and transmit dis-
eases; stable flies feed on mammalian
blood.
All flies undergo complete metamor-
phosis with eg& larva, pupa, and
adult stages in their development
(Fig. I). The female fly deposits her
eggs in moist organic material where
the larvae, or znaggots. complete
their development. When the maggots
have completed their development
and are ready to undergo the next
step in their metamorphosis, they
convert their last larval skin into the
pupanum, a hardened shell within
which the pupa develops. The pupa
then transforms into the adult fly,
which pops off the end of the pu-
parlum and emerges. By pumping
body fluids into the veins, the fly un-
folds and expands its wings, allowing
them to dry and harden before it can
fly. Under optimal conditions the egg-
to-adult development may require as
little as 7 to JO days. Once the female
fly has mated, she can lay several
batches of eggs, typically containing
over 100 eggs each.
While humans are most commonly
bothered by the adult stage, the larval
stage should be the prime target for
control. Elimination of larval habitat
is the preferred method of pest fly
suppression. By removing the mate-
rial in which larvae develop, the life
cycle of the fly can be broken, pre-
venting subsequent production of the
adult pests. While chemical pesticides
may be necessary for suppressing
adult fly populations in some situa-
tions, they are not a substitute for
prevention through the elimination of
breeding sites. Because flies can
quickly develop resistance to insecti-
cides in a few generations, use them
only as a last resort to obtain immedi-
ate control.
HOUSE FLY
Identification and Life Cycle
The house fly (Musca domestica) is a
cosmopolitan companion of humans
and domestic animals. House flies art
less than one-half inch in length. They
are gray, with four dark stripes down
the dorsuin of the thorax (Fig. 2)..
House flies have sponging mouthparts
and can ingest only liquids. However,
they can eat solid food (e.g., sugar,
flour, pollen) by first liquefying it with
their saliva.
Under favorable conditions the house
fly can reproduce prodigiously be-
cause of its short generation time and
ze)
Figure 2. House fly.
EST "TES Publication 7457
University of California
Division cii Agriculture .incl NJaiu,.l Resources Flrtiary 1 999
February 1999
Flies
[ lacinal size',
Figure 3. House fly larva.
the large number of eggs produced
by each female—several batches of
about 150 eggs. Eggs are laid in
warm, moist, organic materials such
as manure, garbage, lawn dippings,
decaying vegetables and [nails, or
soils contaminated with any of these
materials. Under good conditions the
eggs hatch in less than a day. The
cream-colored larvae can then com-
plete development within a week.
Larvae of the house fly have a blunt
posterior end and taper to a point at
the head end (Fig. 3). Larvae seek
drier areas to pupate. Pupation lasts
4 to 5 days and a generation can be
completed in less than 2 weeks; dur-
ing the summer 10 to 32 generations
can develop.
Damage
Because they have sponging mouth-
parts, house flies cannot bite; how-
ever, they have been demonstrated
to mechanically transmit the caus-
ative agents of diarrhea, cholera,
yaws, dysentery, and eye infections.
Flies are also implicated as mechani-
cal vectors of Shigelle and Salmo-
nella, the latter being a pathogen
responsible for food poisoning.
Management of House Flies
Most measures to control house flies
are nonchemical. In almost all cases
where flies are seen inside a building
they have entered from the outside.
Therefore, mechanical control re-
mains the first line of defense against
house flies. Cracks around windows
and doors where flies are entering
should be sealed. Well-fitted screens
will also limit their access to build-
ings. For commercial facilities, air
doors can provide effective harriers
to [iv entry, and light traps attract
any of those that still manage to get
in. A fly swatter can be used effec-
tively against the stray individual
that finds its way intoa house. Out-
doors, regularly remove (at least
twice a week) and dispose of or-
ganic waste, including dog feces, to
reduce the attractiveness of a site to
flies and limit their breeding areas.
Garbage should not be allowed to
accumulate and should be kept in
containers with tight-fitting lids. In
genera), poor exclusion and lack of
sanitation are the major contribu-
tors to fly problems.
Fly papers or ribbons are effective
at eliminating a few flies, but are not
effective enough to manage heavy
infestations, inverted cone traps can
be effective lithe food attractant
used draws flies, but they cannot
compete with garbage or other aro-
matic substances in the surrounding
area. Bug zappers should only be
used indoors and not be visible
from the outside through windows
or open doorways. Bug zappers
outdoors or improper placement
indoors can attract more flies than
they kill. They should also not be
used near food preparation areas
because they may actually result in
increased food contamination with
insect parts.
Selective use of insecticides against
house flies is one component of a
total fly management program but
should only be used after all pos-
sible nonchemical strategies have
been employed. To kill flies indoors,
a nonresidual pyrethrin space spray
or aerosol can be used. Keep the
room closed for several minutes
after treatment until all the flies are
dead. Outside, apply residual insec-
ticides to surfaces such as walls and
ceilings that are being used by the
flies as resting areas. Fly baits used
in hash areas are effective in reduc-
ing the number of flies around build-
ings if good Sanitation practices are
followed. When flies have access to
garbage. however, they will not be
controlled by baits. Always follow
the directions on the insecticide label
for safe application.
LITTLE HOUSE FLY
Identification and Life Cycle
While little house flies (Fannie spp.)
are found throughout the United
States, populations of two species
thrive in the particular climatic condi-
tions of southern California. Both Fan-
nia canicularis and Fannie feinoralis
can be abundant during the cooler
months in southern California and are
considered major winter pest flies.
Adults are approximately one-hail to
two-thirds the size of the house fly,
Musca domestica, and they lack its
distinctive thoracic markings (Fig. 4).
Fannin at rest hold Their wings more
over the back than Musca, creating a
narrower V-shape to the wing outline.
Flying dusters of male Fannie typically
form in areas with still air; these mill-
ing groups maintain a position 5 or 6
feet above the ground.
Females typically spend most of their
time feeding and laying eggs near the
larva] development site. The immature
stages are adapted to tolerate .a wide
moisture range in the larval develop-
ment substrate. Egg laying and larval
development frequently occur in ani-
mal 'wastes, but various moist organic
materials can serve as suitable sub-
strates. Larvae of Fannie spp. are
brown in color and spiny (Fig. 5).
Backyard compost heaps and decom-
posing piles of grass clippings can
produce large numbers of Fannie.
Figure 3. Little house fly.
February 1999 Flies
Figure S. Little house fly larva.
Damage
Little house flies are more reluctant to
enter homes than are house flies;
instead, they tend to congregate in
outdoor areas such as patios,
entiyways, and garages. Their habit of
hovering at face height makes them
annoying, though they move readily
out of the way when approached.
They seldom land and are not consid-
ered a significant disease vector.
Strong air currents lend to disperse
the male aggregations. As tempera-
tures decline, they seek cover in
buildings or protective vegetation. As
temperatures rise in late spring and
early summer, populations of Fannie
diminish. In southern California Fan-
nia are the main pest fly from Novem-
ber to June, with Musca domestics;
assuming major pest status between
June and November.
Management of Little House Flies
Eliminating the breeding site is the
preferred method of controlling Fan-
nia. Piles of moist, decaying grass
clippings are ideal developmental
sites, as are accumulations of moist
manure. Fannie are not attracted to
the same fly baits or traps that collect
house flies.
FACE FLY
Identification and Life Cycle
Face flies (Musca antunn:alis) are par-
ticularly a problem in rural areas of
northern and central California where
livestock are present. The hotter,
drier weather in southern California is
not conducive to their development.
The face fly looks virtually identical to
the house fly but is somewhat larger
and darker in color. Like the house fly
it also has sponging mouthparis and
cannot bite. However, face fly behav-
ior is distinctive because they are
attracted to the eyes, nose, and
mouth of cattle and horses.
Female face flies lay their tiny stalked
eggs in fresh manure. The yellowish
larvae feed on the manure until ma-
ture, when they crawl away to a suit-
able site and pupate in the soil. The
tile cycle is completed in about 2
weeks.
Damage
Face flies feed on the secretions and
sweat of cattle and horses in the sum-
mer months. Their habit of feeding
around the eyes makes them success-
ful vectors of the causative agent of
pinkeye in livestock. They can be-
come pests of humans in fall when
swarms of flies enter the walls of
buildings to hibernate. Then, on warm
days, these hibernating flies can be-
come active and move in large num-
bers to the inside of the building.
Once inside the building they are at-
tracted to light, so they are frequently
found flying around windows or
lights.
Management of Face Flies
The first step in control is to locate
the area where the face flies are hiber-
nating and then treat them directly.
The inspection should start on the
outside of the south and west sides of
the building, because these walls re-
ceive the majority of the sun's rays in
fall and winter and are therefore usu-
ally the warmest parts of the building.
The flies are attracted to these warm
areas in search of protective harbor-
age for the winter. These flies swarm,
then enter cracks and crevices that
often lead to structural voids. Some-
times these void spaces are acces-
sible for inspection such as in a crawl
space, attic, or false ceiling.
The best nonchernical control method
is to vacuum the flies off the surfaces
on which they are resting. In areas
inaccessible to vacuuming, a residual
insecticide such as a pvrethroid can
he applied. For application of residual
insecticides, contact a reputable pest
control company. Dusts are ideal for-
mulations for use in void spaces, but
avoid bendiocarb or boric acid dusts
because they have given poor results.
To prevent future infestations, cracks
on the outside that may serve as entry
points for tiles should he scaled.
STABLE FLY
Identification and Life Cycle
The stable fly (Stomcxys calcitrans),
sometimes called the "biting fly" or
'dog fly," is a common fly attacking
people living in neighborhoods with
populations of animals or that are
close to livestock facilities. These flies
are almost indistinguishable from
house flies, except that stable flies
have a bayonetlike rnouthpart (pro-
boscis) protruding from the front of
the head (Fig. 6).
Depending on weather conditions,
stable flies typically appear in mid-
spring, become severe in early sum-
mer, and decrease in numbers by late
summer. During prime breeding times
in summer, the stable fly can develop
from egg to adult in just 2 weeks. The
female fly lays over 100 eggs per batch
and may Jay four or five such batches
in her lifetime, so there is potential for
rapid population increases. Piles of
moist, decaying plant refuse (grass
clippings, hay, silage, etc.) should be
considered potential sources of stable
flies; this is where female stable flies
Figure 6. Stable fly.
February 1999 Flies
Jay their eggs and where the larvae
develop. Larvae of the stable fly re-
semble larvae of the house fly (Fig. 3).
Stable flies do not breed in pure, fresh
manure but will develop quite well in
manure mixed with hay or other plant
material, especially when dampened
by urine. Backyard compost heaps
and piles of grass clippings are ideal
breeding sites for stable fly larvae and
may serve as the production source
for an entire neighborhood infesta-
tion.
Damage
Stable flies bite people and feed on
their blood but are not known to be
significant vectors of disease. Stable
flies also bite animals and tend to feed
preferentially on the legs and under-
side of animals such as cattle and
horses. On dogs, stable flies typically
feed around the periphery of the ear.
Undisturbed, the stable fly can fully
engorge in less than 5 minutes. It then
flies away to a suitable resting site
where it is protected while the blood
meal is digested. It is seldom neces-
sary for this pest to fly far to find
hosts from which to take a blood
meal. When stable flies are a problem
in an area, they probably are originat-
ing locally.
Management of Stable Flies
The most effective and economical
method for reducing populations of
the stable fly is elimination of breed-
ing sources. To prevent larval devel-
opment, moist grass clippings should
be spread thinly to dry. Maintain com-
post piles to promote rapid decompo-
sition of organic mattes, which
generates heat and makes the pile
unsuitable to fly larvae. Another
nonchensical measure is pest-proofing
the outside of a structure to prevent
flies from entering. This technique
includes caulking cracks, weather-
stripping doors, and installing
screens. For protection of dogs and
horses that are bothered by stable
flies, insect repellents containing
permcthrin or pyrethrins are effec-
tive, but neither provides long-term
control, so repeated applications ev-
ery other day are necessary. Because
the stable fly season is relatively
short, this approach may be feasible.
REFERENCES
Ebeling, Walter. 1975. Urban Entomol-
ogy. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Agric. and
Nat. Resources.
Hedges, Stoy. 1994. Field Guide/or the
Management of Structure-Infesting Flies.
Cleveland: Franzak & Foster Co.
For more information contact the University
of California Cooperative Extension or agri-
cultural commissioner's office in your coun-
ty. See your phone book For addresses and
phone numbers.
WRITTEN BY John Klotz, Les Greenberg.
Nancy Hinkle, and Stephen A. Klotz
ILLUSTRATIONS: Ellen Montgomery Parker
and D. E. Cardwvll
EDITOR. B. Ohlendo.f.
TECHNICAL EDITOR: M. I.. Flint.
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: M. Brush.
PRODUCED BY IPM Education and Publica-
tions, UC Statewide PPM Project. University
of California, Davis, CA %616-8620.
This Pest Note is available on the World
Wide Web (http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu)
M.
UC+IPM
lo s1m13Irf, inlntmaiic.n. u,atfe namc. of piorlutts
Isave bvtn sr,.ed N1, rndniwrnr-nt rf named products
i?. iJIIPVI4C4. on, is r tth itnt impticd ni sinpitat prod.
ucts that are not n,rniin,n4.
1hjt material r.praitiaitv hased upc'.s wink uppurted
byline ( tension, Sern it r. 11 S. pa,hon•pj ofAgiscul.
tripe. under spre i_al trirrion t S.-. him IriS!. tr,trgtatr_tI
I'eri Managenmt-urt
WARNING ON THE USE OF CHEMICALS
Pesticidrs mrepoisunu,us. Always read and carefully follow all prcc.autkms and safely recommendations given
on the conlainem label. Store all chemicals in the original labeled conlairw.-,s in a lockvd cabinet or shed. away
horn food in feeds, and out of the reach of children, unauthorized peusnans, pets, and rr(-esauck.
Confine chemicals to the property being treated. Avoid drift onto nrighburrrng prnperttes. especially gardens
containing fruits and/or vegetables ready to be picked.
Dispose nalempry containers carefully. Follow label instructions for disposal. Never reusethecuntairrers. Make
sure ermaply t.ontaincts are not accessible to children or animals. Never dispose of cOr*aineis where they may
contaminate watet supplies or natural waterways. Do net pout down 'ink or toilet. Consult your county
agrkuhurai ronamissionen tot correct ways of rlbposing of excess p't hks. Nest', burn prasicide containets.
The University of California. in accordance with apprrcabh. Federal and State law and llnivcni?y policy.
rIots not rJcuiminatc on the basis of race, color, national origin. religion. ..ex. disability, age, medical
condition lcanccr. pelated). are t'airy, marital status. citizenship. srruat (flrtitatir,,,. or ?.talus as a Vietnam-
via vtic-ijn ur special disabled veteran. The Univtrsilv also piohibits sexual h.iu.,ssmi'nt. inquiries regarding
the tJniveritv s r,ondhcuiminatiun policies may be directed to tiry Alfltn,ativc Atliut, Director. University
o(Califoinia, AgricuttuirandNatu.xlRcmaiurces, lilt Franklin St . Oaklarud. Caljfp,,ni., 9461).7.S200. 1510)
987.0(591i.
adult
Figure 2. Life stages of the flea (egg not shown).
FLEAS
Integrated Pest Management In and Around the Home
Cat fleas (Ctenocephalides fells) are fre-
quently encountered in homes and are
common pests on domestic cats and
dogs. Dog fleas lCrenocephalides canis)
look like cat fleas, but are rare in Cali-
fornia. Sticktight fleas (Echidnuphaga
gallinacea) can become a problem when
pets frequent areas near poultry.
Female slicktight fleas firmly attach
themselves around the ears and eyes of
their host. Fleas on either cats or dogs
in California are most likely cat fleas.
IDENTIFICATION
Adult fleas (Fig. 1) are very small in-
sects (up to 'Is inch). so it is difficult to
see a number of the characteristics
used to describe them. These reddish
brown to black, wingless insects are
compressed from side to side so that
they look like they are walking on
edge.' They have piercing-sucking
mouthparts through which they obtain
blood meals from their hosts. Flea lar-
vae are tiny (up to Iis inch long), hairy,
and wormlike with a distinct, brownish
head, but no eyes or legs.
70 to 907 before they build small
silken cocoons in which they develop
into adult fleas (pupate). The pupae are
usually covered with local debris for
visual camouflage. Flea larvae develop
more quickly at higher temperatures.
At cool temperatures. fully formed
fleas may remain in their cocoons for
up to 32 months. Worm temperatures
and mechanical pressure, caused by
walking on the carpet, vacuuming, and
so on, stimulate emergence from the
cocoon. At room temperatures, the en-
tire life cycle may be completed in
about 18 days. An adult cat flea gener-
ally lives about 30 to 40 days on the
host: it is the only stage that feeds on
blood. Fleas may be found on pets
throughout the year, but numbers tend
to increase dramatically during spring
and early summer.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED
WITH FLEAS
The cat flea is suspected of transmit-
ting murine typhus to humans, but its
primary importance is in its annoyance
to people and pets. Cat fleas readily try
ue)
Figure I. Adult flea.
to feed on almost apy warm-blooded
animal. Some people are bothered by
the sensation of fleas walking on their
skin, but bites are the major nuisance.
Bites tend to be concentrated on the
lower legs but can also occur on other
parts of the body. The bite consists of a
small, central red spot surrounded by a
red halo, usually without excessive
swelling Flea bites usually cause mi-
nor itching but may become increas-
ingly irritating to people with sensitive
or reactive skin. Some people and pets
suffer from flea bite allergic dermatitis,
characterized by intense itching, hair
LIFE CYCLE
Female cat fleas remain on the host
(unlike most other fleas) and Jay about
20 to 30 eggs per day on the animal.
Cat flea eggs are pearly white, oval.
and about V3Z inch long. The eggs are
smooth: they readily fall from the pet
and land on surfaces like bedding and
carpeting in the animal's environment.
They hatch in about 2 days. The whit-
ish. wormlike larvae (Fig. 2) feed on
dried blood and excrement produced
by adult fleas feeding on the pet. Lar-
val development is normally restricted
to protected places where there is at
least 75% relative humidity. They feed
and crawl around for 5 to 15 days at
I.IPEST ES Publication 7419
University of California
Division of Agrjulture and Natural Resources Revised November 2000
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November 2000 Fleas
flea breeding. Combing pets at regular
intervals is also a good way to.monitor
the flea population and help you de-
cide when other control measures may
be necessary.
Studies have shown that neither Vita-
min B1 (thiamine hydrochloride)
supplements nor brewer's yeast pre-
vents fleas from feeding: also, herbal
collars and ultrasonic devices are not
effective flea repellents.
Indoors
Controlling cat fleas in buildings re-
quires a variety of approaches. Before
starting a control program, look
through each room in the building to
determine areas where larval develop-
ment occurs. Flea populations are
highest in places where dogs or cats
regularly sleep. Flea larvae are not usu-
ally found in areas of heavy pedestrian
traffic or locations that receive expo-
sure to sunlight: they are likely to be
present in areas where adult fleas have
left dried blood and feces.
Sanitation. Thoroughly and regularly
clean areas where adult fleas, flea lar-
vae, and flea eggs are found. Vacuum
floors, rugs. carpets, upholstered furni-
ture. and crevices around baseboards
and cabinets daily or every other day
to remove flea eggs, larvae, adults, and
food sources. Vacuuming is very effec-
tive in picking up adults and stimulat-
ing prcernerged adults to leave their
cocoons. Flea eggs can survive and de-
velop inside vacuum bags and adults
may be able to escape to the outside, so
immediately destroy bags by burning
or by sealing them in a plastic trash
hag and placing them in a covered
trash container. Launder pet bedding
in hot, soapy water at least once a
week.
Thoroughly clean items brought into
the building, such as used carpets or
upholstered furniture, to prevent these
from being a source of flea infestation.
Insecticides. Several insecticides are
registered for controlling fleas indoors.
Sprays are only needed when you de-
tect an infestation in your home. '11w
most effective pruciricts contain one of
the insect growth regulators: nietho-
prene or pvriproxylen. Fleas are
known to build up resistance to insecti-
cides, so always supplement sprays
with other methods of control such as
thorough. frequent vacuuming.
Use a hand sprayer or aerosol to apply
insecticides directly to infested areas of
carpets and furniture. Total release
aerosols ('room foggers) do not pro-
vide the coverage and long-term effec-
tiveness of direct sprays unless they
contain an insect growth regulator.
Treatments with insecticides other than
lCRs often fail to control flea larvae
because the treatment material fails to
contact them at the base of carpet fibers
where they develop.
Spray carpets. pet sleeping areas, car-
peted areas beneath furniture,
baseboards, window sills, and other
areas harboring adults or larvae. Use
an insect growth regulator (metho-
prenc or pyriproxyfen) that specifically
targets the larvae and has a long re
sidual life. As SQOfl as the spray dries,
vacuum to remove additional fleas that
emerge from the pupal stage in carpets
and upholstery. Fleas will continue to
emerge for about 2 weeks after treat-
ment because pupae are not killed by
sprays. Continue to vacuum and do
not treat again for at least several
weeks. Always seal and discard
vacuum bags so fleas don't escape.
Outdoors
Outdoor flea populations are most
prevalent in coastal localities and other
places with moderate daytime tem-
peratures and fairly high humidities.
In Central Valley locations, popula-
tions can become very numerous in
shaded and protected areas such as
sheltered animal enclosures, crawl
spaces where pets may sleep, or
vegetated areas adjacent to buildings.
If an infested outdoor location is-not
treated, the flea problem may reoccur
if pets are reinfested. However, treat-
ment of the pet with ;iny of the pre-
ferred pet treatment products listed
above will normally prevent
reinfestation.
Outdoor sprays are not necessary un-
less you detect significant numbers of
adult fleas. One way to do this is to
Handling a Flea Emergency
If your Inonre is JiraviJy infested with
Ilea.c. take these steps Ill gel the
situation under control.
Inside the home
I. Locate heavily infested areas and
concentrate efforts on these areas.
Wash throw rugs and the pet's
bedding.
Vacuum upholstered furniture.
Remove and vacuum under
cushions and in cracks and
crevices of furniture.
Vacuurncarpets. especially
beneath furniture and In areas
frequented by pets. Use a hand
sprayer to treat all carpets with
an Insecticide that contains an
insect growth regulator.
Allow carpet to dry and vacuum
a second time to remove addi-
tional fleas that were Induced to
emerge.
Continue to vacuum for 10 days
to 2 weeks to kill adult fleas that
continue to emerge from pupal
cocoons.
On the Pet
I. Use a spot-on treatment, which
can be purchased in pet stores or
from vets, or a systemic oral
treatment, which Is available
- from vets only.
Outside the Home
I. Sprays are only necessary
outdoors if you detect lots of
fleas.
2. Locate and remove debris In
heavily infested areas, especially
where pets rest. Concentrate
treatment in these areas with a
spray containing a residual
insecticide and the Insect growth
regulator pyriproxyfen. Open
areas to sunlight by removing
low hanging vegetation.
walk around pet resting areas wearing
white socks pulled up to the knee. If
fleas are present. they will jump onto
socks and be readily visible.
The best products for elimination
of fleas outdoors are Ionuulations that
conlain;t knockdown material such as
November 2000 Fleas
pyrethrin or permelhrin plus an insect
growth regulator (pyriproxyfen) to in-
hibit larval maturation. Avoid prod-
ucts containing diazinon or chiorpy-
silos as these materials pollute water-
ways when they are washed into storm
drains by rain, hosing. or irrigation.
Regular lawn watering will help destroy
larvae and prevent development of ex-
cessive flea populations. 11 possible.
open pet sleeping areas to sunlight by
removing low-hanging vegetation.
SUGGESTED READING
Dryden, M. W.. and M. K. Rust- 1994.
Potter. M. 1997. Ridding Your Home of
Fleas. Lexington: University of Ken-
lucky. (hlipi/www.uky.edtilAgricuifiire/
Enromolo&v/enthictslslruc(ef6O2.htm: and
hit pi/www.uky. edu/AgriculturelEntomol-
ogy/enifaci/s1ruc1e1628.hfln)
Rust, M. K. and M. W. Dryden. 1997.
The biology, ecology, and management
of the cat flea. Annts. Rev. Emomol.
4Z:451-473.
Apply sprays directly in locations The cat flea: Biology, ecology and con-
where pets rest and sleep such as dog- Irol. Veterinary Parasitology 52:1-19.
house and kennel areas, under decks,
and next to the foundation. It is seldom Hinkle, N. C., M. K. Rust, and D. A.
necessary to treat the whole yard or Rejerson. 1997. Biorational approaches
lawn areas. Flea larvae are unlikely to to flea (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) sup-
survive in areas with sunlight exposure pression. J. Agric. Entomoj. 14(3):309-323.
or substantial foot traffic.
For more Information contact the University
of cardornta Cooperative Extension or agri-
cultural commissioner's office in your coun-
ty. See your phone book for addresses and
phone numbers.
CONTRIBUTORS: M. Rust, M. Dryden,
M. L. Flint, N. Hfrulde, E. Mussen, J. Glenn.
V. Lazaneo, V. Lewis, P. O'Connor.Marer
EDITOR. B. Otdendorf
TECHNICAL EDITOR M. L Flint
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: M. Brush
ILLUSTRATIONS: 0. Kidd
PRODUCED BY IPM Education and Publi-
cations, UC Statewide IPM Project. Univer-
sity of California. Davis, CA 95616-8620
This Pest Note is available on the World
Wide Web (httpflwwwipm.ucdavis.edu)
To simplify 'mformation trade names of products
have been used. No endorsement of named prod-
ucts is intended. nor is criticism implied of similar
products that are not mentioned.
This material is partially based upon work supported
by the Extension Service. U.S. Department of Agri-
Culture, wider special project Section 3(d). lntegr'ut-
ed Pest Management.
WARNING ON THE USE OF CHEMICALS
Pesticides are poisonous Always read and carefully follow all precautions and safety recommendations
given on the container label. Store all chemicals in the original labeled containers in a locked cabinet or
shed, away from food or feeds. and out of the reach of children, unauthorized persons, pets, and livestock.
Confine chemicals to the property being treated. Avoid drift onto neighboring properties. especially
gardens conlamkrg fruits or vegetables ready to be picked.
Do not place containers containing pesticide in the 'ash nor pour pesticides down sink or toitet Either
use the pesticide according to the label or take unwanted pesticides to a Household Hazardous Waste
Collection site. Contact your county agricultural commissioner for additional irilOiTnatiOn on safe container
disposal and for the location of the Hazardous Waste Collection site nearest you. Dispose of empty
containers by following label directions. Never reuse or bum the containers or dispose of them in such a
manner that they may contaminate wale, supplies or natural waterways.
The University of California probloits disr.nrnu...ion against or harassment of any person emplJedbon
seeking employment ulth the University on the basis of race, color, national origin, retlgion sex, oij
mental disability, medical condition (cancer-related or genetic characteristics), ancestry, maritals.
sexual orientation. citizenship, or status as a covered veteran (special disabled veteran. Vi rajveteran, or any other veteran who served on active duty during a war or in a campaign or expeditioctj
it campaign badge has been authorized). University Policy Is intended to be consistent with the zlof appltcable Slate and Federal tows. Inquiries regarding the Universitys nondiscrimination policibel
directed to the Ntlunative ActionlStatf Personnel Services Director. University ot California. Agric
Natural Resources. 1111 Franklin. 6th Floor, Oakland. CA 94607-5200: (510) 987.0096.
-0-4.
COCKROACHES
Integrated Pest ManagernEnt in and around the Home
I
(act
Si
Figure 1. German cockroach nymph
There are five species of cockroaches
in California that can become pests:
German cockroach, brownbanded
cockroach, oriental cockroach,
smokybrown cockroach, and Ameri-
can cockroach. Of these, the one that
has the greatest potential of becom-
ing persistent and troublesome is the
German cockroach, which prefers
indoor locations. Oriental and Amen-
can cockroaches occasionally pose
problems in moist, humid areas.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED
WITH COCKROACHES
Cockroaches may become pests in
homes, restaurants, hospitals, ware-
houses, offices, and virtually any
structure that has food preparation or
storage areas. They contaminate food
and eating utensils, destroy fabric and
paper products, and impart stains
and unpleasant odors to surfaces they
contact.
Cockroaches (especially the American
cockroach, which comes into contact
with human excrement in sewers or
with pet droppings) may transmit
bacteria that cause food poisoning
(Salmonella spp. and Shigella spp.).
German cockroaches are believed to
he capable of transmitting disease-
causing organisms such as Staph yio-
coccus spp., Streptococcus spp., hepali-
us virus, and colilorm bacteria. They
also have been implicated in the
spread of typhoid and dysentery.
Some people, especially those with
asthma, are sensitive to the allergens
produced by these cockroaches. How-
ever, a major concern with cock-
roaches is that people are repulsed
when they find cockroaches in their
homes and kitchens.
IDENTIFICATION
Cockroaches are medium-sized to
large insects in the order Dicyoptera
(formerly .Orthoptera). They are
broad, flattened insects with long
antennae and a prominent pronotum
(Fig. 1). Some people confuse them
with beetles, but adult cockroaches
have membranous wings and lack the
thick, hardened forewings or elytTa of
beetles. They are nocturnal and run
rapidly.whtm disturbed. Immature
cockroaches (nymphs) look like
adults, but are smaller and do not
have wings.
Of the five common pest species, Ger-
man and brownbanded cockroaches
inhabit buildings, whereas the orien-
tal, smokybrown, and American cock-
roaches usually Jive outdoors, only
occasionally invading buildings. It is
important to correctly identify the
species involved in a cockroach infes-
tation so that the most effective con-
trol method(s) for the species
involved is chosen (Fig. 2).
German Cockroach
The German cockroach, Blatlella
ser 1anca, is the most common in-
door species, especially in multiple-
family dwellings. They prefer food
preparation areas, kitchens, and bath-
rooms because they favor warm (70°
to 757), humid area,, that are close to
food and water. Severe infestations
may spread to other parts of build-
ings. This species reproduces the
fastest of the common pest cock-
roaches: a single female and her off-
spring can produce over 30,000
individuals in a year, but many suc-
cumb to cannibalism and other popu-
lation pressures. Egg laying occurs
more frequently during warm
weather. The female carries around a
light tan egg case (about 1 /4 inch
long) until I to 2 days before it
hatches, when she drops it. Some-
times the egg case hatches while it is
still being carried by the female. Each
egg case contains about 30 young,
and a female may produce a new egg
case every few weeks.
Brownbanded Cockroach
The brownbanded cockroach, Supella
Ion gipalpa, is not as common as the
German cockroach in California and
accounts for only about I% of all in-
door infestations. This species seeks
out areas that are very warm most of
the time, preferring temperatures of
about 801:, about 5° to 10°F warmer
than what German cockroaches pre-
fer. Favorite locations include near
the warm electrical components of
appliances such as radios, televisions,
and refrigerators. Brownbanded cock-
roaches prefer starchy food (e.g., glue
on stamps and envelopes), are often
found in offices and other places
where paper is stored, and are more
common in apartments or homes that
are not air conditioned. They also
infest animal-rearing facilities, kitch-
ens, and hospitals. Adult males some-
limes fly when disturbed, but females
do not fly. Females glue light brown
egg cases, which are about 1/4 inch
long, to ceilings, beneath furniture, or
in closets or other dark places where
eggs incubate for several weeks
EST "TES Publication 7467
L.Jniversity of Cali for ni;
l)ivision of Agriculttir :mncl Nl,iii,ril Ri.sc,tircc.s Movernhi'r 1 999
-adult female nymph
ORIENTAL
adult malt'
adult female
SMOKYBROWN
Adult: 1.25 inch; almost black; male, wings are
shorter than body; female, wings are rudimentary
Preferred location: damp, dark places—
woodpiles, garages, basements, and in drains
Adult: 03 inch; dark brown to mahogany:
almost black pronotum
Nymph: banded pattern on antennae
Preferred location: trees, shrubs, vegetation
adult
AMERICAN
Adult: 2 inches; reddish brown; large body.
edges of pronotunt ate light colnr'tl
Preferred location: sewers, steam tunnels,
anirn;il. rearing facilities .
j_4~~
adult
November 1999 Cockroaches
FIGURE 2. Identifying features of the different species of pest cockroaches
GERMAN
Adult: 0.5 inch; light brown, two dark stripes on
-. pronotum
Preferred location: kitchens, bathrooms, food
preparation and storage areas
adult
nymph
BROWNBANDED
- Adult: 0.5 inch; males are golden tan; females
are darker brown; both have light-colored bands
on abdomen, wings, and sides of pronotuin
Preferred location: warm areas indoors
adult male
before hatching. Each female and her
offspring are capable of producing
over 600 cockroaches in one year.
Oriental Cockroach
The oriental cockroach, Blatta
orienlalis, is sometimes referred to as
a waterbug or walerbeetle. It lives in
dark, damp places like indoor and
outdoor drains, water control boxes,
woodpiles, basements, garages, trash
cans, and damp areas under houses.
It is most likely to occur in single.
family dwellings that are surrounded
by vegetation. It is also common in
ivy, ground cover, and outside loca-
tions where people feed pets. They
prefer cooler temperatures than the
other species do, and populations of
this species often build to large num-
bers in masonry enclosures such as
water meter boxes. At night, oriental
cockroaches may migrate into build-
ings in search of food. They usually
remain on the ground floor of build-
ings and move more slowly than the.
other species. Oncntal cockroaches
do not fly and are unable to climb
smooth vertical surfaces; conse-
quently they are commonly found
trapped in porcelain sinks or tubs.
Females deposit dark red-brown egg
cases, which are about 3/8 inch long,
in debris or food located in sheltered
places. Each female and her offspring
can produce nearly 200 cockroaches
in one year. Development from a
newly emerged nymph to adult can
take from I to 2 years or more.
Smokybrown Cockroach
The smokybrown cockroach, Periplan-
eta fuliginosa, is usually found in
decorative plantings and planter
boxes, woodpiles, garages, and water
meter boxes; it may occasionally in-
habit municipal sewers. They some-
times invade homes, taking refuge in
areas such as the attic. Nymphs are
dark brown and have white segments
at the end of their antennae and
across their backs. Smokybrown cock-
roaches prefer the upper parts of
buildings; they also may live under
shingles or siding and sometimes get
into trees, shrubs, and other vegeta-
tion during summer months. Females
cart the dark brown to black egg
case, which measures abnul 3/8 inch
2.
November 1999 Cockroaches
long, for about 1 day before dropping
it; eggs can hatch in as soon as 24
days after being laid or as long as 70
days after laying, depending on tem-
perature. About 40 to 45 nymphs
hatch from a single egg case.
American Cockroach
The American cockroach, Ic,ip1aneSa
omcricarnl, prefers warm and humid
environments, usually with tempera-
tures in excess of 82°F. Under the
right conditions, they readily live
outdoors and are common pests in
zoos and animal-rearing facilities.
They are also common in sewers,
steam tunnels, and masonry storm
drains. Occasionally they forage from
sewers and other areas into the
ground floor of buildings. Adult fe-
males carry the egg cases around for
about 6 days and then cement them
to a protected surface where they
incubate for about 2 months or
longer. The egg cases, which are
about 3/8 inch long, are brown when
laid but turn black in I 1o2 days. Each
egg capsule contains about 12 young;
a female and her offspring can pro-
duce over 800 cockroaches in one
year.
LIFE CYCLE
An adult female cockroach produces
an egg capsule, called an ootheca,
which it carries around protruding
from the tip of the abdomen. The Ger-
man cockroach carries the outhera
for most of the 30-day incubation pe-
riod and then drops it about the time
the eggs hatch; the other four species
carry it for only about a day before
depositing it in a suitable location
where it incubates for weeks or
months. Young or immature cock-
roaches undergo gradual metamor-
phosis, which means they resemble
adults and have similar feeding hab-
its, but they do not have fully devel-
oped wings and are not reproduc-
tively active. Immediately after molt-
ing, cockroaches are white, but their
Outer covering darkens as it hardens,
usually within hours.
Cockroaches are nocturnal. They hide
in dark, "arm areas, especially nar-
row pact's where surfaces touch
them on both sides. Adult German
cockroaches can hide in a crack 1/16
inch or 1.6 mm wide. Immature cock-
roaches tend to stay in even smaller
cracks where they are well protected.
Cockroaches' lend to aggregate in
corners and generally travel along the
edges of walls or other surfaces.
MANAGEMENT
Managing cockroaches is not easy.
You must first determine where the
roaches are located. The more bar-
borages you locate and treat, the
more successful your control pro-
gram will be. Remember that cock-
roaches are tropical and like warm
hiding places with access to water.
Some locations will be difficult to get
to. If cockroaches have access to
food, baits will have limited effect.
Sprays alone will not eliminate cock-
roaches. An approach that integrates
several strategies is required.
If you know the species of cockroach,
you will be better able to determine
where the source of infestation is and
where to place iraps, baits, or insecti-
cides. Note locations of suspected
infestation and concentrate control
measures-in these areas. The keys to
controlling cockroaches are sanita-
tion and exclusion: cockroaches will
continue to reinvade as long as a habi-
tat is suitable to them (i.e., food, wa-
ter, and shelter are available), so the
conditions that attracted and favored
the infestation must be changed. In
addition to sanitation and exclusion,
baits and sticky traps can be effective
against most species of cockroaches.
As a last resort, sprays or dusts that
are registered for use on cockroaches
may temporarily suppress popula-
tions, but they do not provide long-
term solutions. Commercially
available devices that emit sound to
repel cockroaches are not effective.
Monitoring Cockroaches
Traps offer the best way to monitor
cockroach populations. By placing
traps in several locations and inspect-
ing them regularly, you can identify
the areas of most severe infestation
and know where to concentrate con-
trol Oforls. Traps also can he very
helpful in evaluating the effectiveness
f control strategies.
Traps can be purchased or made.
Most commercially available cock-
roach traps are open-ended and con-
tain an attractant substance along
with a sticky material that lines the
inside. An alternative is to make a
cockroach trap from a quart-sized
can. The inside top of the can is
coated with a petroleum jelly to pre-
vent the roaches from escaping, and a
slice of white bread is placed in the
can as bait. -
To be effective, traps must be placed
where cockroaches are likely-to en-
counter them when foraging. The best
places are along the edges of floors
and wails and close to sites where
cockroaches are numerous; these
sites can be determined by accumula-
tions of feral matter (e.g., dark spots
or smears), cast skins, egg cases, and
live or dead cockroaches. In the
kitchen put traps against walls behind
the stove and the refrigerator and in
cabinets. Check the traps daily for
several days until it is apparent where
the greatest number of roaches are
caught; usually this is within the first
24 hours of placing a trap—after that
cockroaches may become wary of the
trap. Trapped cockroaches may be
destroyed with hot, soapy water.
You can also monitor a cockroach
population at night using a flashlight
to inspect cracks, underneath
counters, around water heaters, and
in other dark locations. Look for live
and dead cockroaches, cast skins, egg
capsules, and droppings, all of which
aid in identification and are evidence
of an infestation.
Sticky Traps with Pheromones
Continuous trapping, especially of
slow-developing species such as the
oriental cockroach, may be helpful.
Trapping by itself has not been shown
to he effective in controlling German
or brownbanded cockroaches be-
cause these species have such a high
reproductive rate. A recent develop-
ment in the use of sticky traps, how-
ever, has been the addition of an
aggregation pheromone altrattant.
With this development, sticky traps
have become more useful as a control
tool for German cockroaches. An ad-
November 1999 Cockroaches
ditiona) benefit of pheromone sticky
traps is that the bodies of trapped
roaches are removed with the traps.
Dead roaches contain proteins that
can cause asthma symptoms when
they are inhaled by susceptible indi-
viduals, so the removal of dead cock-
roaches may be beneficial in certain
situations. Intensive trapping may
provide a reduction in German cock-
roach populations but the number of
traps and their placement are critical:
follow the manufacturer's recommen-
dations.
Sanitation
Cockroaches thrive where food and
water are available to them. Even tiny
amounts of crumbs or liquids caught
between cracks provide a food
source. Important sanitation mea-
sures include the following:
Store food in insect-proof contain-
ers such as glass jars or sealable
plastic containers.
Keep garbage and trash in contain-
ers with tight-fitting lids. Remove
trash, newspapers, magazines, piles
of paper bags, rags, boxes, and
other items that provide hiding
places and harborage.
Eliminate plumbing leaks and cor-
rect other sources of free moisture.
Increase ventilation where conden-
sation is a problem.
Vacuum cracks and crevices to
remove food and debris. Be sure
surfaces where food or beverages
have been spilled are cleaned up
immediately. Vacuuming also re-
moves cockroaches, shed skins,
and egg capsules. Removing cock-
roaches reduces their numbers and
slows development. Vacuumed
cockroaches and debris should be
destroyed. Because bits of cuticle
and droppings may be allergenic, it
is recommended that the vacuum
cleaner have HEPA (high efficiency
particulate absorber) or triple
filters.
Trim shrubhry around buildings to
increase light and air circulation,
especially near vents, and eliminate
ivy or other dense ground covers
near the house, as these may har-
bor cockroaches.
Remove trash and stored items
such as stacks of lumber or fire-
wood that provide hiding places for
cockroaches from around the out-
side of buildings.
Exclusion and Removal
of Hiding Places
During the day cockroaches hide
around water heaters, in cupboard
cracks, stoves, crawl spaces, outdoor
vegetation, and many other locations.
They invade kitchens and other areas
at night. Limiting hiding areas or av-
enues of access to living areas is an
essential part of an effective manage-
ment strategy. False-bottom cup-
boards, hollow walls, and similar
areas are common cockroach refuges.
Prevent access to the inside of build-
ings through cracks, conduits, under
doors, or through .other structural
flaWs. If it is not practical to remedy
these pràblem areas, treat them with.
boric acid powder..
Take the following measures if
roaches are migrating into a building
from outdoors or other areas of the
building:
Seal cracks and other openings to
the outside.
Look for other methods of entry,
such as from items being brought
into the building, especially appli-
ances, furniture, and items that
were recently in storage.
Look for oothecae glued to under-
sides of furniture, in refrigerator
and other appliance motors, boxes,
and other items. Remove and de-
troy any that are located.
Locate and seal cracks inside the
treatment area where cockroaches
can hide.
Chemical Control
Insecticides are most effective in con-
trolling cockroaches when combined
with sanitation and exclusion prac-
tices that limit the cockroach's ability
to establish or reinvacle; chemical
control alone will not solve the prob-
lem. If insecticides are used, they
must always be used with extreme
care. Indoor chemical control is war-
ranted only if the cockroach popula-
tion is established but not for an
incidental intruder or two.
Dusts. One effective dust for control
of cockroaches is boric acid powder,
which is a contact poison. It is the
least repellent of all the insecticides
for cockroach control, and if it re-
mains dry and undisturbed, it pro-
vides control for a very long time.
Because it has a positive electrostatic
charge, the dust clings to the body of
a cockroach as it walks through a
treated area and the cockroach in-
gests small amounts when it grooms
itself. Because boric acid powder is
fairly slow actin& it may take 7 days
or more to have a significant effect on
a cockroach population. Because of
its toxicity to plantf, boric acid is not
recommended for outdoor use.
Blow dust into cracks and crevices or
lightly spread it in areas where visible
residues are not a problem and where
people will not contact it. Remove
kick panels on refrigerators and
stoves and apply a light film of dust
throughout the entire area under-
neaih these appliances. A thin film of
dust is more effective than a thick
layer. Holes that are the same size as
the tip of a puff-type applicator can be
drilled into the top of kick panels be-
neath cabinets and powder may be
applied through the holes to these
areas as well as under the sink, in the
dead space between the sink and wall,
and around utility pipes. Also treat
along the back edges and in corners
of shelves in cabinets, cupboards,
pantries, and closets.
Boric acid powder does not decom-
pose and is effective for as long as it
is left in place, if it remains dry. For-
mulated as an insecticide, boric acid
dusts usually contain about 1% of an
additive that prevents the powder
from caking and improves dusting
properties. If it gets wet and then
dries and cakes, it loses its electro-
static charge and will not he picked
November 1999 Cockroaches
up readily by the cockroach. If this
occurs, reapply powder to these
areas.
Baits. Baits are formulated as pastes,
gels, granules, and dusts. The most
popular use of baits in homes is
within bait stations, which are small
plastic or cardboard units that con-
tain an attractive food base along with
an insecticide. Bait gels are placed in
small dabs in cracks and crevices
where cockroaches will find it. The
advantage of bait stations is that in-
secticides can be confined to a small
area rather than being dispersed and
they are relatively child resistant.
Baits in plastic containers also remain
effective for many months whereas
the bait gels dehydrate in about 3
days when left in the open air. But
while they are fresh, bait gels are very
effective when placed in locations
where they will be found by cock-
roaches. To remain effective, how-
ever, the gels need to be reapplied
frequently.
Most insecticides used in baits are
slow acting; cockroaches quickly
learn to avoid fast-acting ones. Conse-
quently an effective bait program
does not give immediate results, but
may take 7 days or longer. Baits can
be quite effective for long-term con-
trol of cockroaches unless the cock-
roaches have other food sources
available to them.
Baits do not control all cockroaches
equally. Female cockroaches with egg
cases do very little feeding and avoid
open spaces; consequently they are
less likely to be immediately affected
by a bait.
Commercial baits available (see Table
I) contain abamectin, boric acid,
fipronil, hydramethylnon, or
suiflurarnid mixed with a food base.
Sulfiurantid is not as effective as the
other materials because it is some-
what volatile and there has been some
development of resistance to it.
As with sticky traps, baits do not at-
tract cockroaches so place them near
hiding spaces or where roaches are
likely to encounter them when forag-
ing. When placed next to a sticky trap
that contains an attractant phero-
mone, bait consumption by the
roaches is reported to increase. Bait
stations can also be placed next to
fecal specks and droppings of cock-
roaches, which contain a natural ag-
gregation pheromone. Look for these
fecal specks and droppings under
kitchen counters, behind kitchen
drawers, and in the back of cabinets.
Insect Growth Regulators The insect
growth regulator (ICR) hydroprene
prevents immature cockroaches from
becoming sexually mature. It also has
the added advantage of stimulating
cockroaches to feed. When placed
next to a bait it can increase bait con-
sumption. Under normal circum-
stances an adult Itmak cockroach
carrying an egg case doesn't feed
much, but exposure loan ICR will
induce her to feed.
Sprays and Aerosols. Applying low-
residual insecticides to get a quick
knockdown of cockroaches in an in-
fested area can provide immediate
relief from a cockroach infestation but
generally does not give long-term
control. Common home use insecti-
cides include combinations of pyre-
thrin and piperonyl butoxide or
pyrcthroids such as cyfluthrin, cyper-
ntethrin, and perrnethrin. The safest
application method for home users is
the crack-and-crevice spray used in
combination with sanitation and ex-
clusion. Avoid the use of insecticide
aerosol sprays, bombs, or loggers, as
these will just disperse the cock-
roaches and may actually increase
problems.
The faster the knockdown activity of
an insecticide, the quicker cock-
roaches learn to avoid it. Cock-
roaches are repelled by deposits of
residual insecticides such as syner-
gized pyrethiins and emulsifiable
concentrate formulations of pyre-
throids such as cyfluthrin, cyper-
methrin, and permethrin. Wettable
powder formulations are generally
less repellent and more effective on a
wide range of surfaces; however, they
may be unsightly.
It should be noted that many cock-
roach populations, especially the
German cockroach, have developed
resistance (or tolerance) to many
insecticides used for their control.
Resistance has been documented with
allethain, chlorpyrifos, q'fluthrin,
cyperrnethin, fenvalerate, and others.
Do not expect instant results from an
insecticide spray application, but it
the cockroaches seem to be unaf-
fected the following day, a different
material or strategy may be required.
Under extreme circumstances when
professional pest control services are
warranted to alleviate a persistent
TABLE 1. Baits Currently Available for Use in Homes
Active ingredient Brand name Formulation Where to get product
bmectin Avert gel, powder pest control company
ahamectin
plus hydropiene Raid Max Plus bait Station retail st.,itn
Egg Stoppers
hoik acid Stapletr,irs Magentic Paste Blue Diamond
Phone: 1800) 237.5705
Nibn granules pest control company
and other'
fipruinil Maxtoice bait station pest control supply 'true
Psiaxiorce gel pest control supple tOr
lwdr.untilwlntn Combat bait 51:.tion retail Stoles
Combat granules ,rtail StoreS
Maxinire grl pest control supply stoir-
Sieg.' gel pest continl company
November 1999
Cockroaches
cockroach infestation, everything
should be removed from kitchen
drawers, cabinets, cupboards, and
closets and stacked in out-of-the-way
places and covered to prevent their
contamination with the spray. This
also allows for thorough coverage of
surfaces. Do not replace these items
until the spray is dry. Treated sur-
faces should not be washed or the
effectiveness of the treatment will be
reduced.
Always combine the use of insecti-
cides with sanitation and exclusion,
apply dusts or use bait stations, alter-
nate the types of active ingredients
and formulations that are used, or use
insecticides, such as boric acid, that
do not repel cockroaches or for which
cockroaches have not developed
resistance.
If you wish to avoid sprays and aero-
sols completely, a thorough vacuum-
ing with a HEPA or triple filter
vacuum cleaner followed by the usc
of boric acid dust in cracks and crev-
ices and a baiting program can effec-
tively control severe infestations.
Follow-Up
After a cockroach control program
has been started, evaluate the effec-
tiveness of the methods that are being
used. Use traps or visual inspections
to help determine if further treatment
is necessary.
If populations persist, reevaluate the
situation. Look for other sources of
infestations, make sure that all pos-
sible entryways; are blocked, be cer-
tain that food and water sources are
eliminated as much as possible, and
continue sealing and eliminating hid-
ing places.
When cockroach populations are un-
der control, continue monitoring with
traps on a regular basis to make sure
reinfestation is not taking place. Main-
lain sanitation and exclusion tech-
niques to avoid. encouraging a new
infestation. If severe rcinfestations con-
tinue to recur, consider having the
infested areas modified or remodeled
to reduce the amount of suitable habi-
tat for cockroaches.
REFERENCES
Ebelmg, W. 1974. Boric Acid Powder for
Cockroach Control. Oakland: Univ. Calif.
Div. Agric. Nat. Res. One-Sheet Answers
8206.
Quarles, W. 1998. Pheromones and non-
toxic cockroach control. 1PM
Practitioner, Vol. XX (5/6):1-7.
Rust, M. K, J. M. Owens, and D. A.
Reiersor, eds. 1995. Understanding and
Controlling the German Cockroach. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Slater, A. J. 1978. Controlling Household
Cockroaches. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Div.
Agric. Nat. Res. Leaflet 21035.
For more informatign contact the University
of California Cooperative Extension or agü-
cultural commissioner's office in your court-
ly. See your phone bock For addresses and
phone numbers.
CONTRIBUTORS: M. K. Rust, D. A. Reiec-
son, and A. J. Slates
EDITOR: B. Ohlendorl
ILLUSTRATIONS: U.S. Depts. of Food and
Agric. and Health and Human Services.
1991. Insect and Mite Pests in Food, Vol. It.
Washington. D.C.: U.S. Government Printing
Office, Ag. Handbook No. 655.
TECHNICAL EDITOR: M. L. Flint.
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: M. Brush
PRODUCED BY 111M Education and Publica-
tions. (IC Statewide IPM Project. University
of California. Davis, CA 95616-8620
This Pest Note is available on the World
Wide Web (hltp:llwww.ipm.ucdavis.edu)
n
UC4IPM
In sisiltility infn,mation. trade names of prndtx's
hri.n used. No cndn,nwnt of named pruduct
is narinlid. no, it. i,itic.issn implied of similar prod.
eel, that au not mniiuncd.
This ,rratt.uial i., j,iitialts based upon week suppxrcd
by t1se Lstrrs,inn Service. U.S. Department c(Aguir.0
lop,. 0,iulol 'x( ial (.sojtr* Section tid,. Integrated
$'rt.I t'tuu,.icri,iriut
WARNING ON THE USE OF CHEMICALS
Pcsl,t ides art- poisonous. Always read and caitdully fellow all precautions and safety ,pconrmcndatrons given
on the container label. Stoic all chemicals in the original labeled containers in a locked cabinet or shed, away
f,orn fond or testis, and out of the reach of childrenk unauthorized persons. pets, and lrv&ock.
(online r.hemicals to she property being treated. Avoid dub unto neighboring properlies, especially gardens
cetisalning Iivht. and/or vegetables ready to be picked.
Dispose of empty containers carefully. Fotlor, label instructions for disposaL Never reuse uhecorslainc,s. Make
sure imply, containers are not accessible Si, children PM ,,nunts. Never dispose of containers where they may
contaminate water supplies or natural waterways. Do not pour ulows sink or toilet. Consult you, county
agricultural co,nrnit.iionv, for collect ways of disposing of ear ew. prsticiiks. Never burn pesticide containers,
L'n;vi.rr.,ry of Catilosnia prohibits discrimination agatnar or harassment of any person employed by or
setting vinployuticni with she University on the basis of r.n e. inlet, national origin, religion, sex. pisyskal or
,nrr,ral disability, medical condition (cancce,t-tattd or 1'vn,lic • hararteost....rsceslry, marbl status, age
sesriut o,uentatiun. citizenship, or status as a tovered vclO,Jn 'per ial disabled veteran. Vietnam era veteran.
ou any nuhv, veteran who served on active duty during a war it; in a campaign or expedition for which a
ampuign badge has bt-vn authuei,cd). Ur,ivci,.ity Policy is int..ndrd to be consistent with the provisions of
applic able Siate and Federal laws. Inquisics rrgardiuig thiS University's nondiscrimination policies may be
dun t.d to the Aft ilmahve ActiOnlSi3ff Prsonnl Servki.a I )uiet ttur. Urriveusit of California. Aguic uhore and
Natural Rrt.e,iu,t... lit it ,anklin. l.ih Floor, OaLtand. (A fli(fl ciOu S tO' 987-0096
-0-6.
A pHzDs
Integrated Pest Management for Home Gardeners and Landscape Professionals
Aphids are small, soft-bodied insects
with long, slender mouth parts that
they use to pierce stems, leaves, and
other tender plant parts and suck Out
plant fluids. Almost every plant has
one or more aphid species that occa-
sionally feeds on it. Many aphid spe-
cies are difficuJt to distinguish;
however, identification to species is
not necessary to control them in most
situations.
IDENTIFICATION
Aphids may be green, yellow, brown,
red, or black depending on the species
and the plants they feed on. A few
species appear waxy or woolly due to
the secretion of a waxy white or gray
substance over their body surface. All
are small, pear-shaped insects with
long legs and antennae (Fig. 1). Most
species hiive a pair of tubelike struc-
tures called comicles projecting back-
wards out of the hind end of their
bodies. The presence of comicles
distinguishes aphids from all other
insects.
Generally adult aphids are wingless,
but most species also occur in winged
forms, especially when populations are
high or during spring and fall. The
ability to produce winged individuals
provides the pest with a way to dis-
perse to other plants when the quality
of the food source deteriorates.
Although they may be found singly,
aphids often feed in dense groups on
leaves or stems. Unlike IcaIhoppers,
plant bugs, and certain other insects
that might be confused with them,
most aphids do not move rapidly when
disturbed.
mild climate reproduce asexually
throughout most or all of the year with
adult females giving birth to live off-
spring (often as many as 12 per day)
without mating. Young aphids are
called nymphs. They molt, shedding
their skins about four times before be-
coining adults. There is no pupal stage.
Some species mate and produce eggs in
fall or winter, which provides them a
more hardy stage to survive harsh
weather. in some cases, these eggs are
laid on an alternative host, usually a
perennial plant, for winter survival.
When the weather is warm, many spe-
cies of aphids can develop from new-
born nymph to reproducing adult in 7
to 8 days. Because each adult aphid can
produce up to 80 offspring in a matter
of a week, aphid populations can in-
crease with great speed.
DAMAGE.
Low to moderate numbers of leaf-
feeding aphids are usually not damag-
rnide
Figure 3. A wingless aphid.
ing in gardens or on trees. However,
large populations cause curling, yellow-
in& and distortion of leaves and stunting
of shoots; they can also produce large
quantities of a sticky exudate known as
honeydew, which often turns black with
the growth of asooty mold fungus.
Some aphid species inject a toxin into
plants, which further distorts growth. A
few species cause gall formations.
t1hç -(rmle and
third \ ( reproductive
inslar '(Female)
I Summer Cycle j- Winter Cycle
(many generations) Ai\r (one generation) -
second
inst ar .
rive
\...$ *' - -
s
Migrant
tmrnerbirth
A--
V.-
first lundatrix
instar
LIFE CYCLE Figure L General life cycle of aphids. Asexual reproduction occurs during most of
Aphids have many generations a year the year (summer cycle). Some aphid species produce a generation of sexual mdi-
(Fig. 2). Most aphids in California's viduals that produce overwintering eggs as shown in the winter cycle.
-'EST IM - ES Publication 7404
University of California
Division of Agriculture and. Natural Resources Revised May 2000
May 2000
Aphids
Aphids may transmit viruses from
plant In plant on certain vegetable
and ornamental plants. Squashes, cu-
cumbers, pumpkins, melons, beans,
potatoes, lelluces, beets, chards, and
bok choy are crops that often have
aphid-transmitted viruses associated
with them. The viruses cause mottling,
yellowing, or curling of leaves and
stunting of plant growth. Although
losses can be great, they are difficult to
prevent through the control of aphids
because infection occurs even when
aphid numbers are very low: it only
takes a few minutes for the aphid to
transmit the virus while it takes a
much longer time to kill the aphid with
an insecticide.
A few aphid species attack parts of
plants other than leaves and shoots
The lettuce root aphid is a soil dweller
that attack lettuce roots during most
of its cycle, causing lettuce plants to
wilt and occasionally die if populations
are high. The lettuce root aphid over-
winters as eggs on poplar trees,-where
it produces leaf galls in spring and
summer. The woolly apple aphid in-
fests woody parts of apple roots and
limbs, often near pruning wounds, and
can cause overall tree decline if roots
are infested for several years.
aphids from insecticides or natural
enemies.
Aphids tend to be most prevalent along
the upwind edge of the garden and
close to other sources of aphids, so
make a special effort to check these
areas. Many aphid species prefer the
undersides of leaves, so turn them over
to check them. On frees, clip off leaves
from several areas of the tree to check
for aphids. Also check for evidence of
natural enemies such as lady beetles,
lacewings, syrphid fly larvae, and the
mummified skins of parasitized aphids.
Look for disease-killed aphids as well:
they may appear off-color, bloated, or
flattened. Substantial numbers of any of
these natural control factors can mean
that the aphid population may be re-
duced rapidly without the need for
treatment.
Ants are often associated with aphid
populations, especially on trees and
shrubs, and often are a tip-off that an
aphid infestation is present. If you see
large numbers of ants climbing upyour
tree trunks, check for aphids (or other
honeydew-producing insects) on limbs
and leaves above. To protect their food
source, ants ward off many predators
and parasites of aphids. Management
of ants is a key component of aphid
management and is discussed under
cultural controls.
In landscape settings, aphids can be
monitored by using water-sensitive
paper to measure honeydew dripping
from the tree. This type of monitoring
is of particular interest where there is a
low tolerance for dripping honeydew,
such as in groups of trees along city
streets or in parks and for tall trees
where aphid colonies may be located
too high to detect. See Dreistadt et al.
(1994) in "Suggested Reading" for
more details on honeydew monitoring.
Biological Control
Natural enemies can be very important
in the control of aphids, especially in
gardens not sprayed with broad-
spectrum pesticides (organophos.
phates, carbamates, and pyrethroids)
that kill natural enemy species as well
as pests. Usually natural enemy popu-
lations do not appear in significant
numbers until aphids begin to be
numerous.
Among the most important natural
enemies are various species of parasitic
wasps that lay their eggs inside aphids
(Fig. 3). The skin of the parasitized
MANAGEMENT
Although aphids seldom kill a mature
plant, the damage and unsightly hon-
eydew they generate sometimes war-
rant control. Consider the nonchemical
controls discussed below; most insecti-
cides, if used, will destroy beneficial
insects along with the pest. On mature
trees, such as in citrus orchards, aphids
and the honeydew they produce can
provide a valuable food source for
beneficial insects.
Monitoring
Check your plants regularly for
aphids—at least twice weekly when
plants are growing rapidly. Many spe-
cies. of aphids cause the greatest dam-
age when temperatures are warm but
not hot (65 to 80'F). Catch infestations
early. Once aphid numbers are high
and they have begun to distort and
curl leaves, it is often hard to control
them because the curled leaves shelter
Figure 3. Life cycle of an aphid parasite. A: An adult parasite lays an egg inside a
live aphid. B: The egg hatches into a parasite larva that grows as it feeds on the
aphid's insides. C. After killing the aphid, the parasite pupates. 0: An adult wasp
emerges from the dead aphid, then flies off to find and parasitize other aphids.
-4-2*
May 2000 Aphids
aphid turns crusty and golden brown,
a form called a mummy. The genera-
lion time of most parasites is quite
short when the weather is warm, so
once you begin to sec mummies on
your plants, the aphid population is
likely to be reduced substantially
within a week or two.
Many predators also feed on aphids.
The most well known are lady beetle
adults and larvae, lacewing larvae, and
syrphid fly larvae. Naturally occurring
predators work best, especially in a
small backyard situation. Commer-
cially available lady beetles may give
some temporary control when properly
handled, although most of them will
disperse away from your yard within a
few days.
Aphids are very susceptible to fungal
diseases when ills humid. Whole colo-
nies of aphids can be killed by these
pathogens when conditions are right.
Look for dead aphids that have turned
reddish or brown; they have a fuzzy,
shriveled texture unlike the shiny,
bloated, tan-colored mummies that
form when aphids are parasitized.
Weather can also impact aphids.
Populations of many species are re-
duced by summer heat in the Central
Valley and desert areas, and aphid
activity is also limited during the cold-
est part of the year. However, some
aphids my be active year round, espe-
cially in the milder, central coastal
areas of California. -
Cultural Control
Before planting vegetables, check sur-
rounding areas for sources of aphids
and remove them. Aphids often build
up on weeds such as sowthistle and
mustards, moving onto crop seedlings
after they emerge. Check transplants
for aphids and remove them before
planting.
Where aphid populations are localized
on a few curled leaves or new shoots,
The best control may be to prune these
areas out and dispose of them. In large
trees, sonic aphids thrive in the dense
inner canopy: pruning these areas out
can make the habitat less suitable.
In some situations ants tend aphids
and feed on the honeydew aphids ex-
crete. At the same time, they protect
the aphids from natural enemies. If
you see ants crawling up aphid-
infested trees or woody plants, put a
band of sticky material (Tangleloot,
etc.) around the trunk to prevent ants
from getting up. Teflon products,
which are too slippery for ants to climb
up, have also been used. (Note: Do not
apply sticky material directly to the
bark of young or thin-barked bees or
to trees that have been severely
pruned; the material may have phvto-
toxic effects. Wrap the trunk with fab-
ric tree wrap or duct tape and apply
sticky material to the wrap.) Alterna-
tively, ant stakes or baits may be used
on the ground to control the ants with-
Out affecting the aphids or their natural
enemies. Piunc Out other ant routes
such as branches touching buildings,
the ground, or other trees.
High levels of nitrogen fertilizer favor.
aphid reproduction. Never use more
nitrogen than necessary. Use less.
soluble forms of nitrogen and apply it
in small portions throughout the sea-
son rather than all at once. Or better
yet, use a urea-based, time-release for-
mulation (most organic fertilizers can
be classified as time-release products
as compared to synthetically manufac-
tured fertilizers).
Because many vegetables are primarily
susceptible to serious aphid damage
during the seedling stage, losses can be
reduced by growing seedlings under
protective covers in the garden, in a
greenhouse, or inside and then trans-
planting them when they are older and
more tolerant of aphid feeding. Protec-
tive covers will also prevent transmis-
sion of aphid-borne viruses,
Aluminum foil mulches have been
successfully used to reduce transmis-
sion or aphid-borne viruses in summer
squashes, melons, and other suscep-
tible vegetables. They repel invading
aphid populations, reducing numbers
on seedlings and small plants. Another
benefit is that yields of vegetables
grown on aluminuin foil mulches are
usually increased by the greater
amount of solar energy reflecting on
leaves.
To put an aluminum mulch in your
garden, remove all weeds and cover
beds with aluminum-coated construc-
tion paper, which is available in rolls
from Reynolds Aluminum Company.
Bury the edges of the paper with soil to
hold them down. After the mulch is in
place, cut or burn 3- to 4-inch diameter
holes and plant several seeds or single
transplants in each one. You may fur-
row irrigate or sprinkle your beds; the
mulch is sturdy enough to tolerate
sprinkling. In addition to repelling
aphids, leafhoppers, and some other
insects, the mulch will enhance crop
growth and control weeds. When sum-
mertime temperatures get high, how-
ever, remove mulches to prevent
overheating plants. An alternative to
aluminum-coated construction paper is
to spray dear plastic mulch with silver
paint. Reflective plastic mulches are
also available in many garden stores.
Another way to reduce aphid popula-
tions onsturdy plants is to knock them
off with a slrongspray of water. Most
dislodged aphids will not be able to
return to the plant, and their honey-
dew will be washed off as well. Using
water sprays early in the day allows
Plants to dry off rapidly in the sun and
be less susceptible to fungal diseases.
Chemical Control
Insecticidal soap, neem oil, and
narrow-range oil (e.g., supreme or su-
perior parafinic-type oil) provide tem-
porary control if applied to thoroughly
cover infested foliage. To get thorough
coverage, spray these materials with a
high volume of water and target the
underside of leaves as well as the top.
Soaps, neem oil, and narrow range oil
only kill aphids present on the day
they are sprayed, so applications may
need to be repeated. Predators and
parasites often become abundant only
after aphids are numerous, so applying
nonpersistent insecticides like soap or
Oil may provide more effective long-
term control. Although these materials
do kill natural enemies that are present
on the plant and hit by the spray, be-
cause they leave no toxic residue, they
May 2000 Aphids
do not kill natural enemies that mi-
grate in alter the spray. These and
other insecticides with only contact
activity are generally ineffective in
preventing damage from aphids such
as the woolly apple aphid or the
woolly ash aphid that are protected by
galls or distdrted foliage. Do not use
soaps or oils on water-stressed plants
or when the temperature exceeds 90'17.
These materials may be phyloloxic to
some plants, so check labels and test
them out on a portion of the foliage
several days before applying a full
treatment.
Supreme- or superior-type oils will kill
overwintering eggs of aphids on fruit
If if applied as a delayed dormant
application just as eggs are beginning
to hatch in early spring. These treat-
ments will not give complete control of
aphids and are probably not justified
for aphid control alone. Earlier applica-
tions will not control aphids. Common
aphid species controlled include the
woolly apple aphid, green apple aphid,
rosy apple aphid, mealy plum aphid,
and black cherry aphid.
For more information contact the University
of Calitomia Cooperative Extension or agri-
cultural comrnissionei's office in your coun-
ty. See your phone book for addresses and
phone numbers.
AUTHOR M. L. Flint
EDITOR B. Ohtendorf
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: M. Brush
ILLUSTRATIONS: Figs. I and 2: Pests of
the Garden and Small Farm. UC DANR
Publ. 3332; Fig. 3: Natural Enemies Hand-
book UC DANR Publ. 3386.
PRODUCED BY IPM Education and Publi-
cations. UC Statewide PPM Project. Univer-
sity of California. Davis. CA 95616-8620
This Pest Note is available on the World
Wide Web (http:llwww.ipm.ucdavis.edu)
I,iThJ fl
V&I UC+ 1PM I.
To simplify intonnation. trade names of products
have been used. No endorsement of named prod-
ucts is intended. not is criticism implied of similar
products that are not mentioned.
This material is partially based upon work supported
by the Extension Service. U.S. Department of Ag:..
culture, under special project Section 3(d). Integrat-
ed Pest Management.
Many other insecticides are available to
control aphids in the home garden and
landscape, including foliar-applied
formulations of malathion, pemethnn
and acephate (nonfood crops only).
While these materials may kill higher
numbers of aphids than soaps and oils,
their use should be limited because
they also kill the natural enemies that
provide long-term control of aphids
and other pests. Repeated applications
of these materials may also result in the
development of resistance to the mate-
rial by the aphid. Insecticides such as
oils and soaps are also safer to use
when children and pets may be present.
Formulations combining insecticidal
soaps and pyrethrins may provide
slightly more knockdown than soaps
alone, yet have fewer negative impacts
on natural enemies than malathion,
permethrin, and acephate, because
pyrethuins break down very quickly.
Avoid the use of diazinon and
chiorpyrifos; urban garden use of these
materials has been identified as a
source of pollution in California's
creeks and rivers. Carbaryl is not rec-
ommended because it is not very effec-
tive against aphids. Acephate has
systemic activity, which means it
moves through leaves, thus it can be
effective where aphids are hidden be-
neath curling foliage. Acephate is not
registered for use on food crops in the
garden because it can break down to a
much more toxic material. The soil-
applied systemic pesticide disulfoton is
sometimes applied in roses for aphid
control, but it is a highly toxic material
to people.
Professional applicators can make
soil injections of the systemic insecticide
ünidacloprid, which is quite effective
against aphids infesting large street trees
and not very harmful to beneficial soil
organisms. Because it takes a substantial
time for the product to get from the soil
to the growing points of trees, applica-
tions must be made up 102 months be-
fore problems are expected.
When considering application of pesti-
cides for aphid control, remember that
moderate populations of many aphids
attacking leaves of fruit trees or orna-
mental trees and shrubs do not cause
long-term damage. Low populations can
be tolerated in most situations and
aphids will often disappear when natu-
ral enemies or hot temperatures arrive.
Often a forceful spray of water or water-
soap solution, even on large street trees,
when applied with appropriate equip-
ment, will provide sufficient control.
SUGGESTED READING
Dreistadt, S. H., J. K. Clark, and M. L
Hint. 1994. Pests of Landscape Trees and
Shrubs: An Integrated Pest Management
Guide. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Agric. Nat.
Res. Publ. 3359.
Hint, M. L 1999. Pests of the Garden and
Small Farm: A Grower's Guide to Using
Less Pesticide, 2nd ed. Oakland: Univ.
Calif. Agric. Nat. Res. Publ. 3332.
WARNING ON THE USE OF CHEMICALS
Pesticides are poisonous. Always read and carefully follow all precautions and safety recommendations
given on the container label. Store all chemicals in the original labeled containers in a locked cabinet or
shed, away from food or feeds, and out of the reach of children, unauthorized persons, pets, and rivestocic.
Confine chemicals to the property being treated. Avoid drift onto neighboring properties, especially gardens
containing fruits and/or vegetables ready to be picked.
Dispose of empty containers carefully. Follow label instructions for disposal. Never reuse the containers.
Make sure empty containers ate not accessible to children or animals. Never dispose of containers where
they may contaminate water supplies or natural waterways. Do not pour down sink or toilet. Consult your
county agricultural commissioner for correct ways of disposing of excess pesticides. Never burn pesticide
containers.
The University of California prohibits discrimination against or harassment of any person employed by or
seeking employment with the University on the basis of race, color, national origin. religion. sex, physical
or mental disability, medical condition (cancer-relaled or genetic characteristics), ancestry, marital status.
age, sexual orientation, citizenship, or status as a covered veteran (special disabled veteran. Vietnam-era
veteran, or any other veteran who served on active duty during a war or In a campaign or expedition for which
a campaign badge has been authorized). University Policy is intended to be consistent with the provisions
of applicable Stale and Federal laws. Inquiries regarding the University's nondiscrimination policies may
be dipected to the Affirmative AclionlStafl Personnel Services Dbcctor University of California. Agriculture
and Natural Resources, 1111 Franklin. 61h Floor. Oakland. CA 94607.5200: (510) 987-00!6.
*4*
November 2000
Ants
ing tree trunks with sticky substances
such as Tanglcfoot. Trim branches to
keep them from touching structures or
plants so that ants are forced to climb
up the trunk to reach the foliage. Pro-
led young or sensitive trees from pos-
sible injury by wrapping the trunk
with a collar of heavy paper, dud tape,
or fabric tree wrap and coating this
with the sticky material. Check the
sticky material every] or 2 weeks and
Stir it with a stick to prevent the mate-
rial from getting clogged with debris
and dead ants that allows ants to cross.
Enclosed pesticide baits such as ant
stakes may be placed near nests or on
ant trails beneath plants. For the most
effective and economical control, treat
in late spring and early summer when
ant populations are low.
COMPILED FROM:
Mayer, P. 1991. Residential, Industrial,
and Institutional Pest Control. Oakland:
Univ. Calif. Div. Agric. Nat. Res. Pub].
3334.
Moore, W. S., and C. S. Koehler. 2980.
Ants and Their Control. Oakland: Univ.
Calif. Div. Agric. Nat. Res. Leaflet 2526
(out of print).
SUGGESTED READING
Haney, P., P. Phillips, and R Wagner
2993 A Key to the Most Common andlor
Economically Important Ants of Califor-
nia. Oakland: Univ. Calif. Div. Agric.
Nat. Res. Leaflet 22433.
Maths, A. 1982. Handbook of Pest Con-
trol. 6th ed. Cleveland: Franzak &
Foster Co.
UC Statewide IPM Project. Oct. 2000.
Pest Notes: Carpenter Ants. Oakland:
Univ. Calif. Div. Agric. Nat. Res. Pub!.
7416. Also available online at hup:II
wwto. ipm.ucdavis.cdul
For more information contact the University
of California Cooperative Extension or agri-
cultural commissioner's office in your coun-
ty. See your phone book for addresses and
phone numbers.
CONTRIBUTOR: J. Klotz
EDITOR: B. OMendorf
TECHNICAl. EDITOR: M. L. Flint
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION: M. Brush
ILLUSTRATIONS: Figs. 13: V. Winemiller;
Fig. 2: Adapted from UC DANR Leaflet
2532. Termites and Other Wood-Infesting
Insects.
PRODUCED BY IPM Education and Pubrt-
cations. UC Statewide IPM Project. Univer-
sity of California, Davis. CA 95616-8620
This Pest Note is available on the.Wortd
Wide Web (httpilwww.ipm.ucdavis.edu)
0
F
UC+ 1PM
To simplify information, trade names of products
have been used. No endorsement of named prod-
ucts is intended. no, is criticism implied of similar
products that are nut mentioned.
This material is partially based upon work supported
by the Extension Service. U.S. Deparimeurt of Ayui.
culture, under special project Section 3(d). Integrat-
ed Pest Management.
WARNING ON THE USE OF CHEMICALS
Pesticides are poisonous. Always read and carefully follow all precauti
o
n
s
a
n
d
s
a
f
e
t
y
r
e
c
o
m
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e
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a
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given on the container label. Store an chemicals in the original labeled containers ma locked cabinet Or shed.
away from food or feeds, and out of the math of dtldren, unauthorized perso
n
s
,
p
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t
s
,
a
n
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s
p
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c
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a
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l
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a
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n
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containing fruits or vegetables ready to be picked.
Do not place containers containing pesticide in the trash nor pour pesticides d
o
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e
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the pesticide according to the label or take unwanted pesicides to a Household Hazardous Waste Collection
site' Contact your county agricultural commissioner for additional intonnation on
s
a
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e
c
o
n
t
a
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e
r
d
i
s
p
o
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for the location of the Hazardous Waste Collection site nearest you. Dispose of empty containers by following
label directions. Never reuse or burn the contaners or dispose of
t
h
e
m
i
n
s
u
c
h
a
m
a
n
n
e
r
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
y
m
a
y
contaminate W3ICT supplies or natural waterways.
The University of California prohibits discrimination against or hirassment of any person employed by or
seeking employment with the University on the basis of taco, color, nationa
l
o
r
i
g
i
n
.
r
e
l
i
g
i
o
n
.
s
e
x
.
p
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y
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r
mental disability. 'medical condition (cancer-related or genetic tharactvis
t
i
c
s
)
.
a
n
c
e
s
t
r
y
,
m
a
r
i
t
a
l
s
t
a
t
u
s
,
age.
sexual orientation, citirenship. or status as a covered veteran (special disab
l
e
d
v
e
t
e
r
a
n
.
V
i
e
t
r
i
a
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,
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.
or any other veteranwho served on active duty during a war or in acampaignor expedition for which a campaign
badge hs been authorized). University Poky is intended to be consistent with the provisions of applicable
Slate and Federal taw. Inquiries regarding the Universltfs nondiscrimination policies may be directed to the
NfunnatrveltclkmnlStaff Personnel Services Director. University 01 California. Agriculture and Natural Resources.
1111 Franklin. 6th Floor. Oakland, CA 94607-5200 (510) 987.0096.
November 2000
Ants
that ants play a beneficial role in the
garden in some cases. Become au are of
the seasonal cycle of ants in your area
and be prepared for annual invasions
by caulking and baiting before the
influx.
Exclusion and Sanitation
To keep ants out of buildings, caulk
cracks and crevices around founda-
tions that provide entry from outside.
Ants prefer to make trails along struc-
tural elements, such as wires and
pipes, and frequently use them to enter
and travel within a structure to their
destination. Indoors, eliminate cracks
and crevices wherever possible, espe-
cially in kitchens and other food prepa-
ration and storage areas. Store
attractive food items such as sugar,
syrup, honey, and other sweets in
closed containers that have been
washed to remove residues from outer
surfaces. Rinse out empty soft drink
containers or remove them from the
building. Thoroughly clean up grease
and spills. Do not store garbage in-
doors. Look for indoor nesting sites,
such as potted plants. If ants are found,
remove the containers from the build-
ing, then submerge the pots for 20
minutes in standing water that con-
lain.s a few drops of liquid soap. Ant
nests may be associated with plants
That support large populations of
honeydew-producing insects. Avoid
planting such trees and shrubs next to
buildings.
Baits
One way to control ants in and around
structures is to use toxic baits. Baits are
formulated as solids or liquids and
applied in stations or in the case of
granules by broadcasting them. Ants
are attracted to the bait and carry small
portions of it back to the nest where it
is given to other workers, larvae, and
reproductive forms. To achieve wide
distribution of the bait so the entire
colony will be killed, the bait toxicant
must be slow-acting. Some examples of
toxicants used in ant baits are
hvdramcthylnon, boric acid, and
uipronil. Hvdramcthylnon is photode-
gradable, so if it is broadcasted in
granular form it should be applied in
the evening. Boric acid is most effective
at concentrations of I'D or lower.
Fipronil is -a new class of toxicant that
is effective against ants at ultra-low
doses.
Ants will not eat bait if more desirable
food is nearby, so be sure to remove
any particles of food or other attractive
material from cracks around Sinks,
pantries, and other ant-infested areas
of the home. Place bait stations in
places where the ants can easily find
them, but avoid placing them in areas
That are accessible to small children
and pets. Place baits where there are
ant trails or along edges where ants
travel. In addition to placing ant bait
stations indoors, space them every 10
to 20 feet outside around the founda-
tion and at nest openings if they can be
found. Control with baits is not imme-
dite and may take several weeks or
more to be complete. Effectiveness of
baits will vary with ant species, bait
material, and availability of alternative
food. In the case of Argentine ants,
sweet baits (e.g.; Grant's Ant Stakes,
Dr. Moss's Liquid Bait System) are
attractive year-round. Protein baits
(e.g., Combat ant baits) are more at-
tractive in spring when the colony is
producing brood. Offering a small
quantity of each kind of bait and ob-
serving which is preferred by the ants
is a good way to determine what to
use.
Indoor Sprays
An insecticide labeled for ant control
can provide immediate knockdown of
foraging ants if necessary while sanita-
tion and exclusion measures are being
taken. However, if ants can be thor-
oughly washed away and excluded
from an area, an insecticide is probably
not necessary. Sponging or mopping
with soapy water, as an alternative to
insecticides, may be as effective in tem-
porarily removing foraging ants in a
building because it removes the ant's
scent trail.
Outdoor Treatments
To prevent ants from entering build-
ings, small spot applications can be
made at entrance points into the build-
ings. Pyrethroids (such as bifenthrin
and cyfluthrin) arc effective for this
kind of application. Botanical .pvre-
thrins pill kill ants that they contact
directly, but do not provide any re-
sidual control. Preliminary research on
mint-oil products as repellents indi-
cates that they are net effective.
A common method used to prevent
ants from coming indoors is to apply a
perimeter treatment of residual sprays
around the foundation. Perimeter treat-
ments pose more risk of environmental
upset than baits in bait stations, don't
provide long-term control, and should
be used cautiously. Commonly used
insecticides include the pyrethroids
hiknthnn and lambda-cyhalothrin.
Bifenthrin is available in retail prod-
ucts, but lambda-cyhalothrin may only
be applied by a licensed pest control
professional. Products available to
professionals provide a longer residual
control than home-use products. Avoid
the use of chiorpyrifos and diazinon;
landscape and residential use of these
materials in urban areas has been iden-
tified as a source of pollution for
California's creeks and rivers. Apply
all pesticides in a manner that prevents
runoff into storm drains.
Perimeter treatments by themselves are
unlikely to provide long-term control
because they kill only foraging work-
ers. For this reason, some companies
offer monthly perimeter spray pro-
grams. However, for long-term control
and environmental safety, rely on ex-
clusion, baits, and other methods that
control the colony rather than monthly
perimeter treatments.
If colonies need to be controlled Out-
doors, focus treatment on queens and
larvae inside nests; killing foraging
workers does little to control the
colony because as few as 17a of the
workers are able to provide sufficient
food for nestbound queens and larvae.
Toxic baits provide the easiest way to
kill a colony (see "Baits").
Control on Trees and Shrubs
When numerous ants are found on
Plants, they are probably attracted to
the sweet honeydew deposited on the
plants by certain sucking insects. These
ants can he kept out of trees by hand-
.3.
ANTS
Integrated Pest Management In and Around the Home
Ants are among the most prevalent
pests in households. They are also
found in restaurants, hospitals, offices,
warehouses, and other buildings
where they can find food and water.
Once ants have established a colony
inside or near a building, they may be
difficult to control. On outdoor (and
sometimes indoor) plants, ants protect
and care for honeydew-producing
insects such as aphids, soft scales,
whiteflies, and rnealybugs, increasing
damage from these pests. Ants also
perform many useful functions in the
environment, such as feeding on other
pests (e.g., fleas, caterpillars, termites),
dead insects, and decomposing tissue
from dead animals.
There are over 12,000 species of ants
throughout the world. In California,
there are about 200 species but fewer
than a dozen are important pests. The
most common ant occurring in and
around the house and garden in Cali-
fornia is the Argentine ant, Linepitherna
I,umile (formerly Iridomyrmex humiis)
(Fig. 1). Other common ant pests in-
dude the pharaoh ant (Monomorium
phtrraonis), the odorous house ant
(Tapinoina scssile), the thief ant
(Sulenopsis mol&o), and the southern
fire ant (Soknopsis xylonO. Less com-
mon, but of great importance, is the
red imported fire ant, Solenopsis im,icta,
which has recently gained a foothold
in southern California. In some areas,
the spread of the fire ant has been
slowed by competition from the Ar-
gentine ant.
IDENTIFICATION
Ants belong to the insect order Hy-
menoptera and are close relatives of
bees and wasps. They are familiar in-
sects that are easily recognized, espe-
cially in their common wingless adult
forms, known as workers. However,
winged forms of ants, which leave the
nest in large numbers in warm weather
to mate and establish new colonies, are
often mistaken for winged termites,
which also leave their nests to mate.
Ants and termites can be distinguished
by three main characteristics illustrated
in Figure 2.
The ant's abdomen is constricted
where it joins the thorax, giving it the
appearance of having a thin waist;
the termite's abdomen is broad
where it joins the thorax.
The ant's hind wings are smaller
than its front wings; the termite's
front and hind wings are about the
same size. (Shortly after their flights,
both ants and termites remove their
wings so wings may not always be
present.)
Winged female ants and worker
ants have elbowed antennae; the
termite's antennae are never
elbowed.
Ants undergo complete metamorpho-
sis, passing through egg, larval, pupal.
Ant
Antenna
elbowed
Thin waist
Hind wings are
smaller than
front wings.
Figure 1. Argentine ant.
and adult stages. Larvae are immobile
and wormlike and do not resemble
adults. Ants, like many other hy-
menopterans, are social insects with
duties divided among different types,
or castes, of adult individuals. Queens
conduct the reproductive functions of a
colony and are larger than other ants;
they lay eggs and sometimes partici-
pate in the feeding and grooming of
larvae. Female workers, who are ster-
ile, gather food, feed and care for the
larvae, build tunnels, and defend the
colony; these workers make up the
bulk of the colony. Males do not par-
ticipate in colony activities; their only
apparent purpose is to mate with the
queens. Few in number, males are fed
and cared for by workers.
Termite
- Antenna
not elbowed
Broad waist
Wings (if present)
have many small veins.
Front and hind wings
are same size.
Wings (ii present)
have few veins.
Figure 2. Distinguishing features of ants and termites.
-'EST ES Publication 7411
University of California
Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Revised November 2000
Figure 3. Life cycle of the Argentine ant.
November 2000 Ants
Adult workers of the Argentine and
odorous house ant are about iJ inch
long and range from light to dark
brown in color; those of the pharaoh
and thief ant are smaller, measuring
about 'li.' inch long. The workers of the
southern fire ant vary in size and have
a red head and thorax with a black
abdomen. Carpenter ants, Camponotus
spp., also invade buildings in Califor-
nia. Although they do not cat wood as
termites do, they hollow it out to nest
and may cause considerable damage.
These ants vary greatly in size from 1/
to 314 inch long (for more information
on carpenter ants, see Pest Noses: Car-
penter Ants, listed in "Suggested Read-
ing"). For color photographs and
additional information on identifying
the different ant species. see A Key to
the Most Common and/or Economically
Important Ants of California, listed in
"Suggested Reading."
DAMAGE
Inside a building, household ants feed
on sugars, syrups, honey, fruit juice,
fats, and meat. J..ong trails of thousands
of ants may lead from nests to food
sources, causing considerable concern
among building occupants. Outdoors
they are attracted to sweet, sticky se-
cretions, or honeydew, produced by
soft scales and aphids. Frequently out-
breaks of scales and aphids occur when
ants tend them to obtain their sweet
secretions because the ants protect
scales and aphids from their natural
enemies. Ants can bite with their pin-
cerlike jaws, although most species
rarely do. A few ants sting. the south-
ern fire ant, which is primarily an out-
door species, is the most common and
aggressive stinging ant in California.
Another very aggressive stinging ant,
the red imported lire ant (S. invrcla),
has recently been found in various
southern California counties. Contact
your county Cooperative Extension
office for information on this new pest.
LIFE CYCLE AND HABITS
Ants usually nest in soil; nests are of-
ten found next to buildings, along side-
walks, or in dose proximity to food
sources such as trees or plants that
harbor honeydew-producing insects...
They also construct nests under
boards, stones, tree stumps or plants,
and sometimes under buildings or
other protected places. Pharaoh ants
like warmth and make nests inside
buildings, often in wall voids, under
flooring, or near hot water pipes or
heating systems. Ant food includes
fruits, seeds, nuts, fatty substances,
dead or live insects, dead animals, and
sweets. Food preferences van' some-
what between ant species.
Ants enter buildings seeking food and
water, warmth and shelter, or a refuge
from dry, hot weather or flooded con-
ditions. They may appear suddenly in
buildings if other food sources become
unavailable or weather conditions
change.
A new colony is typically established
by a single newly mated queen. After
weeks or months of confinement un-
derground, she lays her first eggs (Fig.
3). After the eggs Ratch, she feeds the
white, legless larvae with her own
metabolized wing muscles and fat bod-
ies until they pupate. Several weeks
later, the pupae transform into sterile
female adult workers, and the first
workers dig their way out of the nest
to collect food for themselves, for the
queen (who continues to lay eggs), and
for subsequent broods of larvae. As
numbers increase, new chambers and
galleries are added to the nest. After a
few years, the colony begins to pro-
duce winged male and female ants,
which leave the nest to mate and form
new colonies.
Argentine ants differ from most other
ant species in California in that they
have multiple queens within a nest
they move their nests if disturbed, and
in the winter several colonies will nest
together. Moreover, when newly
mated queens disperse to found new
colonies, instead of doing it by them-
selves they are accompanied by
workers.
MANAGEMENT
Ant management requires diligent
efforts and the combined use of me-
chanical, cultural, sanitation, and often
chemical methods of control. it is unre-
alistic and impractical to attempt to
totally eliminate ants from an outdoor
area. Focus your management efforts
on excluding ants from buildings or
valuable plants and eliminating their
food and water sources. Remember
RECEIVED
JUL 27 2006
ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT