HomeMy WebLinkAboutCT 03-02; CARLSBAD RANCH PLANNING AREA 5; DATA RECOVERY PLAN; 2005-04-29I GIALLE GOS
& Associates
Saima Qureshy
Carlsbad Planning Department
1635 Faraday Avenue
Carlsbad, California 92008
,I_ .
5671 Palmer Way, Suite A
Carlsbad, California 92008
(760) 929-0055
email: gallegos@aol.com
05-300-045
April 29, 2005
Re: Submittal of the Data Recovery Plan for that Portion of CA-SDI-8797 within the
Grand Pacific Resorts Project Area
Dear Ms. Qureshy,
The significant site area for CA-SDI-8797 within the Grand Pacific Resorts project area
is 5,000 sq feet (1500 sq m). For that portion of CA-SDI-8797 that will be directly
impacted (1,125 sq m/3,750 sq ft), a Data Recovery Program will be conducted. The
Plan for the Data Recovery Program identifies: the site history, research orientation, field
methods, and special studies needed to complete the Data Recovery Program. I have
enclosed one copy of the Data Recovery Plan for your review and comment. We
anticipate starting fieldwork on May 9th, 2005.
The remaining site area (375 sq m/1250 sq ft) will be placed within an open space
easement. This area, as well as the slope, will contain only native plants, will be assisted
in design by the Native American Representative, will provide capping and protection for
a portion of CA-SDI-8797, and will be signed with a plaque discussing Native American
history. Please contact me should you have questions, comments or need additional
information.
Best regards,
~~
President
Enclosure
Cc: Tim Stripe
DATA RECOVERY PLAN
CULTURAL RESOURCE DATA RECOVERY PLAN FOR
THE GRAND PACIFIC RESORTS SITE CA-SDI-8797 LOCUS A
CITY OF CARLSBAD, CALIFORNIA
Prepared for:
Grand Pacific Resorts
Prepared by:
Gallegos & Associates
April 2005
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DATA RECOVERY PLAN
CULTURALRESOURCEDATARECOVERYPLANFOR
THE GRAND PACIFIC RESORTS SITE CA-SDI-8797 LOCUS A
CITY OF CARLSBAD, CALIFORNIA
Prepared for:
Grand Pacific Resorts
5900 Pasteur Court, Suite 200
Carlsbad, CA 92008
April 2005
Prepared by:
Gallegos & Associates
5671 Palmer Way, Suite A
Carlsbad, CA 92008
I
I TABLE OF CONTENTS
I SECTION TITLE PAGE
I 1 CULTURAL RESOURCE DATA RECOVERY PLAN 1-1
FOR CA-SDI-8797
1.1 Introduction 1-1
I 1.2 Background and Significance 1-5
1.3 Environmental Setting 1-5
1.4 Background -Prehistory 1-9
I 1.4.1 Early Period/ Archaic 1-9
1.4.2 Late Period 1-11
1.4.3 Protohistoric Period 1-12
I 1.5 Research Questions 1-13
1.6 Research Priorities 1-25
1.7 Data Needs 1-25
I 1.8 Methods 1-26
1.9 Field Strategy 1-26
1.10 Laboratory Methods 1-27
I 1.10.1 Lithic Analysis 1-28
1.10.2 Faunal Analysis 1-33
1.10.3 Ceramic Analysis 1-35
I 1.10.4 Microbotanical, Macrobotanical, and Protein 1-38
Residue Studies
1.10.5 Obsidian Source Identification and Hydration 1-38
I Rim Measurements
1.10.6 Radiocarbon Dating Analysis 1-39
1.11 Report Preparation 1-39
I 1.12 Native American Participation 1-40
1.12.1 Provisions for Encountering Human Burials 1-40
1.13 Personnel 1-41
I 1.14 Curation 1-41
1.15 Monitoring 1-42
1.16 Report Submittal 1-42
I 2 BIBLIOGRAPHY 2-1
I LIST OF FIGURES
I FIGURE TITLE PAGE
1-1 Regional Location of Project 1-2
1-2 Project Area Shown on USGS Map 1-3
I 1-3 CA-SDI-8797, Significant Site Area 1-4
1-4 CA-SDI-8797 Previous Work 1-6
I April 2005
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I LIST OF TABLES
I FIGURE TITLE PAGE
1-1 CA-SDI-8797: Cultural Material Recovered from STPs 1-7
1-2 CA-SDI-8797: Cultural Material Recovered from Units 1-8
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I April 2005 ii
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SECTION!
CULTURAL RESOURCE DATA RECOVERY PLAN FOR CA-SDI-8797
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Data Recovery Plan (Plan) for prehistoric site CA-SDI-8797 was prepared by Gallegos &
Associates to adequately address both open space for 25 percent of that portion within Grand
Pacific Resorts Property and mitigation of impacts through data recovery for the remaining 75
percent of CA-SDI-8797 with respect to compliance procedures set forth in the California
Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) and City of Carlsbad Guide Lines. The Plan was prepared to
provide an overview of San Diego County cultural resources, specific information for CA-SDI-
8797, research orientation, field and laboratory methods, report preparation, Native American
consultation, personnel, curation of artifacts and ecofacts, and monitoring during construction.
Mitigation of impacts can be achieved through avoidance, capping, or through the completion of a
Data Recovery Program. The preferred method of mitigation is avoidance, and through agreements
with Grand Pacific Resorts 25 percent of site CA-SDI-8797 will be avoided of development
impacts. The portion of CA-SDI-8797 within the Open Space Easement will be capped with one-
inch of clean sand and a minimum of 12-inches of clean fill. Native plants will be used in the Open
Space Easement. Water lines and other utilities will need to be placed outside of the Open Space
Easement or within the fill soil. As the remaining portion of CA-SDI-8797 cannot be avoided of
development impacts, mitigation of impacts will be achieved through the completion of a data
recovery program.
CA-SDI-8797 is located within the City of Carlsbad (Figures 1-1 and 1-2). The primary site area
for CA-SDI-8797 is approximately 1,500 sq. m (5,000 sq. f.) (Figure 1-3). The Plan provides for a
2-5 percent phased data recovery program for 1125 sq. m (75 percent of 1500 sq. m.). This
program includes excavation of lxl-m sample units, block excavations, controlled backhoe
excavation, feature excavation, analysis of artifacts and ecofacts, and radiocarbon dating. The
research orientation for this study will focus on chronology, lithic technology, settlement and
subsistence strategy, environmental setting, and trade and travel. Upon review and acceptance of
April 2005 1-1
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r-··-~ ··"---..
Camp Pendleton L. ·--.. Riverside County
S~ Die-~o Co~nty ··--· --··
Encinitas
t
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Scale: 1"= 10 miles
Gallegos & Associates
PROJECT 1
AREA
Regional Location of Project
El Capitan
Lake
Mexico
FIGURE
1-1
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1000 0
F--3
Galle os & Associates
I 1
1000
__ ,
,,
2-,,)
,-,:-~
SCALE 1:24000
0
Encinitas and San Luis Rey 7.5' USGS Maps
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 FEET
5 F--3 F--3 3::::::E:3:=:JE--d==:C::JF--3:=C:lO~====================~l KILOMETER
Project Area Shown on USGS Map FIGURE
1-2
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t:,. Datum
D Unit
• Positive
o Negative
STPs
Galle os & Associates
\
SCALE
CA-SDI-8797 Showing Significant Site Area
0 200 feet t-------
0 61 meters
FIGURE
1-3
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the Plan, fieldwork will commence and will necessitate approximately eight weeks to complete the
fieldwork, followed by another eight to twelve weeks to complete the laboratory analysis, special
studies, and report of finding.
1.2 BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE
Site CA-SDI-8797 was tested and identified as significant under CEQA (Gallegos and Kyle 1992
and Gallegos and Harris 1995). Locus A of site CA-SDI-8797 was identified as a significant
cultural resource under City of Carlsbad and CEQA criteria (Gallegos and Kyle 1992). Locus A,
the current study area, was initially recorded as W-116 in the 1920s by Malcolm Rogers. Testing
conducted by Gallegos and Kyle (1992) identified a cultural deposit to 80-cm that included the
recovery of debitage, cores, ground stone, a scraper, ceramics, a biface fragment, a shell bead, an
otolith, modified bone and shell (Figure 1-4 and Tables 1-1 and 1-2).
Testing of site CA-SDI-8797 Locus B (southern portion of CA-SDI-8797) included collection of
surface artifacts, and excavation of 21 shovel test pits (STPs) and 2 lxl m units. The units were
placed on the basis of field survey and positive STP results. Subsurface excavation identified a
localized intact subsurface deposit identified here as Locus B. Given the intact nature of the
deposit, depth of deposit to approximately 100 cm, and the presence of milling tools, bone tools, a
shell bead, and bone and shell, Locus B of CA-SDI-8797 was identified as significant/important
under City of Carlsbad and CEQA criteria.
The test excavation of CA-SDI-8797 Locus C identified a rich cultural deposit and the presence of
a human burial (Gallegos et. al 1999). This portion of CA-SDi-8797 was radiocarbon dated to ca.
5,000 years ago.
1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
The project site is situated adjacent to the south shore of Agua Hedionda Lagoon in north coastal
San Diego County. The lagoon habitat provided rich and varied food resources for prehistoric
populations. These resources included shellfish, fish, and plants, as well as, small, medium, and
large mammals. The ranch is currently used to grow flowers, strawberries, and other crops. Native
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t:. Datum
D Unit
• Positive
o Negative
\
N40/W90
\N2/W70 o
\
STPs
allegos & Associates
Galle os & Associates
SCALE
CA-SDI-8797 Showing Previous Work
lo>o,
,----=--------'-.;
PRIMARY ?o,
SITE AREA
" -c ./. ~ 0,
0, \
\
0 200 feet i------~
0 61 meters
FIGURE
1-4
-------------------
Table 1-1
CA-SDI-8797: Cultural Material from STPs (Gallegos& Kyle 1992)
STP
Cultural Material N2/E IO N2/E20 N2/E30 NIO/EO N30/EO N50/EO N70/EO N90/EO NI 10/EO Nl30/EO Nl50/EO N2/WIO N2/W30 N2/W50 N2/W60 N40/WIO N40/W30 N40/W50 N40/W70 Total Percent
Angular waste 3 3 3 3 0 2 0 0 I 0 0 0 3 0 0 22 36.07%
Flake 5 2 7 5 0 7 I 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 32 52.46%
Core 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.64%
Core fragment 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.64%
Mano fragment 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.64%
Unidentifiable groundstone 0 0 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.64%
Ceramic rim sherd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.64%
Modified bone 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3.28%
Bone* 0.9 <0.1 0 1.7 0.1 <0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.7
Shell* 80.5 2.9 45.9 436.0 14.5 22.7 8.6 2.1 0.6 1.0 0.4 8.3 2.9 1.9 0 78.l 26.5 3.5 3.6 740.0
Recent historic Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Present Historic Present Present Present Present Present
Charcoal Present Present Present
Total** 10 5 10 12 0 8 3 0 2 0 3 3 0 0 61 100.00%
Percent** 16.39% 8.20% 16.39% 19.67% 0.00% 13.11% 4.92% 0.00% 3.28% 1.64% 0.00% 4.92% 1.64% 1.64% 1.64% 4.92% 1.64% 0.00% 0.00% 100.00%
*weight in grams
**excluding bone and shell
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Table 1-2
CA-SDI-8797: Cultural Material from Units (Gallegos & Kyle 1992)
Cultural Material Unit 1 Unit2 Total
Angular waste 28 4 32
Flake 57 6 63
Core 3 1 4
Scraper 1 0 1
Ceramic sherd 4 1 5
Modified bone 4 0 4
Conus shell bead 1 0 1
Otolith 1 0 1
Bone* 21.3 0 21.3
Shell* 4703.6 35.9 4739.5
Recent historic Present Present
Charcoal Present
Total** 99 12 111
*weight in grams
**excluding bone and shell
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vegetation comprises a small portion of the project area, consisting of coastal sage scrub. The
primary geological formations within the project area are Linda Vista and Santiago Peak. Soil
within the study area is sandy loam underlain by a sandstone deposit.
1.4 BACKGROUND -PREHISTORY
The body of current research of prehistoric occupation m San Diego County recognizes the
existence of at least two major cultural traditions, discussed here as Early Period/Archaic and Late
Period, based upon general economic trends and material culture. Within San Diego County, the
Early Period/Archaic generally spans the period from 9,500 to 1,300 years ago, while the Late
Period spans from 1,300 years ago to historic contact. The Historic Period covers the time from
Spanish contact to present.
1.4.1 Early Period/ Archaic
The Early Period/ Archaic, for this discussion, includes the San Dieguito and La Jolla complexes,
which are poorly defined, as are the interrelationship between contemporaneous inland, desert, and
coastal assemblages (Gallegos 1987). Initially believed to represent big game hunters, the San
Dieguito are better typified as a hunting and gathering society. These people had a relatively
diverse and non-specialized economy in which relatively mobile bands accessed and used a wide
range of plant, animal, and lithic resources. Movement of early groups into San Diego County may
have been spurred by the gradual desiccation of the vast pluvial lake system that dominated inland
basins and valleys during the last altithermal period. This hypothesis is supported by the similarity
between Great Basin assemblages and those of early Holocene Archaic sites in San Diego County.
Several researchers recognized the regional similarity of artifacts and grouped these
coftemporaneous complexes under the nomenclature of either the Western Pluvial Lakes Tradition
or the Western Lithic Co-tradition (Bedwell 1970; Davis et al. 1969; Rogers 1939; Warren 1967;
Moratto 1984).
The origin of coastal populations and subsequent interaction between the coastal population and
Great Basin/desert groups is a subject of some debate (Gallegos 1987). Whatever their origin, the
first occupants immediately exploited the coastal and inland resources of plants, animals, shellfish,
and fish (Moriarty 1967; Kaldenberg 1982; Gallegos 1991; Kyle et al. 1998).
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The development of a generalized economic system indicates that the San Dieguito and related
groups can be placed within the general Archaic pattern. Archaic cultures occur within North
America at slightly different times in different areas, but are generally correlated with local
economic specialization growing out of the earlier Paleo-Indian Tradition (Willig, Aikens and
Fagan1988). Archaic cultures are often represented by more diverse artifact assemblages and more
complex regional variation than occur in Paleo-Indian traditions. This is generally thought to have
resulted from the gradual shift away from a herd-based hunting focus to a more diverse and area
specific economy.
The earliest sites are found near coastal lagoons and river valleys of San Diego County. These sites
are the Harris Site (CA-SDI-149), Agua Hedionda Sites (CA-SDI-210/UCLJ-M-15 and CA-
SDI-10695), Rancho Park North (CA-SDI-4392/SDM-W-49), and Remington Hills (CA-SDI-
11069), dating from 9,500 to 8,000 years B.P. The northern San Diego County coastal lagoons
supported large populations, circa 6,000 years ago, as shown by the numerous radiocarbon dated
sites adjacent to these lagoons. After 3,000 years ago, there is a general absence of archaeological
sites in north San Diego County to circa 1,500 years ago. This reduction in number of
archaeological sites can be attributed to the siltation of coastal lagoons and depletion of shellfish
and other lagoon resources (Warren and Pavesic 1963; Miller 1966; Gallegos 1985).
Archaeological sites dated to circa 2,000 years ago are found closer to San Diego Bay, where
shellfish were still abundant and may well represent what can be considered the end of the La Jolla
Complex (Gallegos and Kyle 1988).
The La Jolla and Pauma Complexes, which are identified as following the San Dieguito Complex,
may simply represent seasonal or geographic variations of the somewhat older and more general
San Dieguito Complex. Inland La Jolla occupation sites have been reported in transverse valleys
and sheltered canyons (True 1959; Warren et al. 1961; Meighan 1954). These non-coastal sites
were termed "Pauma Complex" by True (1959), Warren et al. (1961), and Meighan (1954). Pauma
Complex sites by definition have a predominance of grinding implements (manos and metates ),
lack shellfish remains, have greater tool variety, seem to express a more sedentary occupation, and
have an emphasis on both gathering and hunting (True 1959; Warren 1961; Meighan 1954).
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Archaic sites from 9,500 to 1,300 years ago within San Diego County include coastal habitation
sites, inland hunting and milling camps, and lithic quarry sites. Material cultural assemblages
during this long period are remarkably similar in many respects. These deposits may well represent
a process of relative terrestrial economic stability and presumably slow cultural change. Though
various culture traits developed or disappeared during the long span of 9,500 to 1,300 years ago,
there is a clear pattern of cultural continuity during this period.
1.4.2 Late Period
During the Late Period (circa 1,300 to historic contact), a material culture pattern similar to that of
historic Native Americans first becomes apparent in the archaeological record. The economic
pattern during this period appears to be one of more intensive and efficient exploitation of local
resources. The prosperity of these highly refined economic patterns is well evidenced by the
numerous Kumeyaay/Dieguefi.o and Luisefi.o habitation sites scattered over San Diego County.
This increase in Late Period site density probably reflects better preservation of the more recent
archaeological record and a gradual population increase within the region. Artifacts and cultural
patterns reflecting this Late Prehistoric pattern include small projectile points, pottery, the
establishment of permanent or semi-permanent seasonal village sites, a proliferation of acorn
milling sites in the uplands, the appearance of obsidian from Obsidian Butte, and interment by
cremation.
Many of the Late Prehistoric culture patterns in southern California were shared with groups along
the eastern periphery of the region. Even in the most recent periods, the Native Americans of
southern California incorporated many elements of their neighbors' culture into their own cultures.
This transference and melding of cultural traits between neighboring groups makes positive
associations of archaeological deposits with particular ethnographically known cultures difficult.
This is particularly true of the groups within San Diego County. Though significant differences
exist between Luisefi.o and Kumeyaay/Dieguefi.o cultures (including linguistic stock), the long
interaction of these groups during the Late Period resulted in the exchange of many social patterns.
Archaeologists must rely heavily on ethnographic accounts of group boundaries as recorded during
the historic period, although it is not known how long these boundaries had been in place or the
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validity of these boundaries as presently reported. Florence Shipek Ph.D. (1993) identifies the
northern and southern Kumeyaay/Dieguefio tribal boundary as:
In 1769, Kumeyaay national territory starting at the coast about 100
miles south of the Mexican border (below Santo Tomas), thence
north to the coast at the drainage divide south of the San Luis Rey
River including its tributaries. Using the U.S. Geological Survey
topographic maps, the boundary with the Luisefio then follows that
divide inland. The boundary continues on the divide separating
Valley Center from Escondido and then up along Bear Ridge to the
2240 contour line and then north across the divide between Valley
Center and Woods Valley up to the 1880 Ft. peak, then curving
around east along the divide above Woods Valley ...
The project area falls near the boundary between the Kumeyaay/Dieguefio and Luisefio. As a result
of contact with Spanish, Mexican, and American settlers, Native American populations were
decimated by resettlement and disease. Presently, Native Americans are found throughout San
Diego County, especially within the 17 San Diego County reservations.
Further readings on Kumeyaay/Dieguefio and Luisefio Native Americans include: Almstedt 1974;
Barrows 1900; Bean 1972; Bean and Saubel 1972; Burrus 1967; Cuero 1968; Drucker 1939;
Dubois 1908; Gifford 1918; Harrington 1978; Hedges 1986; Heizer and Almquist 1971; Heizer and
Whipple 1957; Hooper 1920; Keneally 1965; Kroeber 1970; Langdon 1970; Merrill 1973; Pourade
1960; Priestley 1937; Robinson 1969; Rudkin 1956; Shipek 1977, 1980, 1986a,b, 1987, 1988,
1989a,b, 1991, 1993; Sparkman 1908; Spicer 1962; Spier 1923; Strong 1929; Tibesar 1955;
Underhill 1941; White 1963; Wolcott 1929; and Woodward 1934.
I 1.4.3 Protohistoric Period
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The Hispanic intrusion and colonization (1769-1822) within Native American southern California
affected the coastal tribes and peoples living in well-traveled river valleys. The Mexican Period
(1822-1848) saw continued displacement of the native population by expansion of a land grant
program and development of extensive ranchos. The gold rush and the concomitant granting of
statehood, combined with an influx of Anglos, caused a rapid displacement of the native
population, as well as deterioration of their culture and lifeways (Bancroft 1886; Kroeber 1970).
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1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research orientation, developed for the data recovery plan, employs regional and locally
specific questions; and, identifies data needs to approach these questions. A wide range of research
questions or topics are possible for site CA-SDI-8797, however, five research domains were
selected on the basis of previous work, data available to address these questions, and overall
contrib-1.;1.tion to the archaeological record. The specific research questions focus on chronology,
lithic technology, settlement and subsistence strategy, and trade and travel. These research topics
were used to guide the study, and to determine the sample size necessary to provide sufficient
materials to address these research questions posed.
A. Chronology
What was the period(s) of use and/or occupation for site CA-SDI-8797?
Determining the period of occupation of a site or a region can be accomplished by the use of
radiocarbon dating and by relative dating. Radiocarbon dating depends on the retrieval of materials
( e.g., bone, shell, charcoal) amenable to scientific analysis. Radiocarbon dates for north San Diego
County range from roughly 9,000 years ago to historic contact.
The alternate dating method, relative dating, is based on the recovery of specific artifacts that are
temporally diagnostic. Temporally-diagnostic artifacts recovered in context with associated
radiocarbon dates include atlatl-dart points, arrow points, and ceramics. Obsidian sourcing and
hydration rind measurements are also relative-dating measures.
In order to address the research questions posed, temporal placement of the site is necessary.
Previous work at CA-SDI-8797 identified both Early and Late Period components with both the
presence of a knife fragment (Early Period) and pottery (Late Period).
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Data Needs
Shell, bone, and charcoal are present and will be submitted for radiocarbon dating. Relative dating
is also possible using point types, the presence of ceramics, and analysis of obsidian. The testing
program produced one biface and ceramics for relative dating. Obsidian, traded from distant
sources, may also be relatively dated using hydration rates since obsidian absorbs water at slow and
somewhat constant rates. Obsidian from sources such as Obsidian Butte in the Imperial Valley was
available during the late Holocene, while obsidian from the Coso Range of the central valley was
available throughout the Holocene. Shell species preference or availability may also be used to
place sites within a relative order. For example, marine shell can be identified by species to
determine shell habitat and along with radiocarbon dates, can be used to identify environmental
setting and change within the Holocene.
Methods of Collection
Charcoal samples will be collected from inside or below fire hearth features, whenever possible.
Charcoal will be removed with a clean trowel and placed in clean resealable plastic bags. Small
fragments of charcoal recovered from inside the hearth will be wrapped in clean aluminum foil and
then placed in a clean resealable plastic bag. Bone and shell will be retrieved during the subsurface
excavation program. Analysis methods for bone and shell are discussed in Sections 1.10.2.
All samples will be clearly labeled with provenience (i.e., site, unit, level, date, person collecting
the sample, associated feature), date of recovery, and material (i.e., shell, bone, charcoal).
Obsidian will be separated from other debitage, wrapped in paper or cotton to prevent edge
damage, and labeled appropriately. Obsidian analysis is discussed in Section 1.10.5. If diagnostic
artifacts are recovered during collection of surface artifacts or during excavation, these artifacts
will be placed in resealable plastic bags and labeled as described in Section 1.10.
If features are identified during lxl-m unit excavation, units will be expanded so that a sample of
the feature is exposed. The feature(s) will then be mapped, photographed, and cultural material
recovered. Methods are discussed in Sections 1.8 and 1.9.
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Expectations
On the basis of the test report (Gallegos and Kyle 1992) large quantities of shell with some bone
were identified. Subsurface excavation should provide shell, bone, charcoal, or cultural material
for radiocarbon dating and/or relative dating, thereby placing these sites within the broader context
of north San Diego County sites.
B. Lithic Technology
What technological trajectories were used by the prehistoric inhabitants? Which lithic
reduction strategies were in use and when?
Several flake-tool reduction strategies have been identified for the southern coastal California
region. These include biface reduction, split-cobble core reduction, small blade core reduction,
bipolar core reduction, and cobble reduction. The decision to use one or the other of these
techniques was dependent on several factors, but the most important factors were the type of
material that was worked, the morphology of the parent material, and the intended tool. Some
lithic materials, such as Monterey chert and Piedra de Lumbre chert, are more easily worked, and
with heat-treatment become some of the best knappable material in the western United States.
Problems exist, however, in the form of the material in its raw state. Piedra de Lumbre chert
generally occurs in small pieces, thus it was used more extensively in the late Holocene for small
arrow points (Pigniolo 1992). This material has been recovered from a site dating to 8,000 years
ago (Gallegos 1991). Monterey chert occurs in small cobbles and in layers. For small cobbles,
bipolar reduction would be the most efficient method of producing usable flakes. For the layered
Monterey chert, biface reduction was the most expedient method of producing tools, as the layers
were already thin and only the outer perimeter needed to be worked (Cooley 1982). Other chert
sources in San Diego County need to be identified and the material chemically characterized.
Large biface production and reduction requires pieces of material large enough to be reduced and
homogenous enough to produce a workable item. The Santiago Peak volcanics and the Bedford
Canyon metasediments found in San Diego County have been used extensively for the production
of large tools (adzes, scrapers, scraper planes, cores, hammer stones) and bifaces (Schroth and
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Flenniken 1997). The use of quarry material from these formations may be an early to middle
Holocene marker, as the larger spear and dart points would have necessitated the use of larger
blocks of parent material.
Cobble/core reduction includes numerous techniques such as the pyramidal-shaped split
cobble/core (used to produce thick contracting flakes for flake tools), teshoe flakes for large flake
tools, and cobble/core tools where the parent material rather than the removed flakes became the
tool. The cobble layers along the coast would have provided material for these reduction
sequences.
Ground stone artifacts (i.e., manos, metates, and pestles) occur on sites throughout San Diego
County and especially at habitation sites, milling stations, and temporary camps. To date, little
analysis has been conducted regarding ground stone manufacture and use or change of use through
time in San Diego County. An analysis of debitage and lithic tools from CA-SDI-10148, located
south of the San Diego River near Santee, was completed by Flenniken (Kyle and Gallegos 1993).
Flenniken determined that all of the flaked core/cobble tools recovered from this site were used for
ground stone manufacture and rejuvenation, and that the debitage was the result of both tool
manufacture and use of the tools for rejuvenating ground stone grinding surfaces. Analysis of
debitage and tools from habitation sites can provide information regarding manufacture, use, and
rejuvenation of ground stone. Changes in resources and task-specific uses should be analyzed to
determine if ground stone tools were designed for specific tasks and if technological changes
occurred through time as climate and resources changed.
Assuming that sufficient quantities of lithic materials will be recovered, then the following research
hypotheses will be addressed.
HO: Specific lithic reduction techniques have changed through time, with large biface reduction
and steep edge unifacial tools (SEUT) predominating during the early and middle Holocene, and
small biface reduction during the late Holocene.
Hl: All reduction strategies were equally important throughout the Holocene.
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Study Topics
(a) Which technological reduction strategies are present based on the debitage at the
site?
(b) Which reduction strategies were used to produce which tools? Were these strategies
the same of different?
( c) If ground stone tools are present, are the cobble materials local or non-local?
( d) Is there evidence that ground stone tools were produced at the site, or were they
produced elsewhere and then carried to the site?
( e) How do technologies and stages of tool reduction relate to site function and tools
recovered at the sites?
Data Needs
A. Collection of a sample of cores and debitage.
B. Detailed analysis of cores and debitage for technological attributes and reduction
sequence classification.
A. Identification of the technological attributes and reduction sequences used to produce
the tools.
Methods of Collection
Debitage, tools, and ground stone will be recovered during hand excavation of the lxl-m
units. The units will be excavated in 10-cm levels and the soil screened using 1/8-inch
hardware mesh. Excavators will be aware that granitic, sandstone, and other coarse-grained
lithic material debitage are possible and should be collected where ground stone implements
are manufactured, finished, or used. Field methods are discussed in Section 1.9.
Laboratory methods are discussed in Section 1.10 and lithic analysis in Section 1.10.1.
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Expectations
Given the site type, habitation, sufficient quantities of debitage, flaked lithic tools, and ground
stone will be recovered to identify manufacturing techniques. Given the 149 debitage, 1 biface, 6
cores, 1 scraper (SEUT), and one ground stone fragment recovered from the two sample units and
shovel test pits, the number of debitage projected for the 2% sample are 2,235 debitage, 15 bifaces,
90 cobble tools, 15 scraping tools, and 15 milling tools. Given that sufficient materials are
available, then the identification will be correlated with technological replicative studies as part of
the data recovery program. In this region, use of locally available quarry materials (fine-grained
metavolcanic ), and local cobbles and granitic materials are expected to dominate the assemblage
for flaked tools, core/cobble tools, and for ground stone tools.
C. Settlement and Subsistence
What settlement and subsistence patterns can be identified, and have these patterns changed
over time? Did the collection of shellfish change with time? What influenced the changes:
environment, populations, technologies, or combinations of these factors?
The most pronounced environmental change for coastal southern California is the rise in sea level
that occurred during the early to middle Holocene, and the flooding of coastal valleys and the
creation of lagoons that are associated with this event. Evidence of environmental change in
lagoons is based on analysis of core samples combined with radiocarbon dates and radiocarbon
dated shellfish samples taken from prehistoric sites near lagoons. Environmental studies using
shellfish to explain site patterning and environmental change include Miller (1966), Warren et al.
(1961), Warren and Pavesic (1963), Bull and Kaldenberg (1976), Gallegos (1985), and Masters
(1988).
Circa 3,500 years ago, sea level stabilized, causing an increase in siltation processes that eventually
caused degradation of the lagoons during the late Holocene. In contrast to San Diego Bay, the
environmental change in northern San Diego County was more complex. San Diego Bay formed in
the early Holocene and stayed open to the ocean throughout the Holocene (Gallegos and Kyle
1988). Thus, some prehistoric sites may reflect a changing environment and the loss of lagoonal
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shellfish and fish, whereas other sites dependent on San Diego Bay may not reflect a change in
shellfish species and type of shellfish and/or absence of shellfish.
Large quantities of shellfish are generally not recovered from inland prehistoric sites. This relative
lack of shellfish remains may be the result of poor preservation. Changes in use of shellfish and
fish through time may, therefore, be difficult to determine. Environmental changes have also been
documented for the coastal region, suggesting climatic drying and accompanying vegetation
changes taking place over the past 7,000 years (Davis 1992). Pollen studies suggest that pine trees,
oak trees, and grassland were present during the early and middle Holocene.
The Native American occupation of southern San Diego County in the 10,000 years of the
Holocene is poorly documented. Gallegos (1987) suggested that early and middle Holocene (Early
Period/Archaic) sites identified as inland San Dieguito and Pauma Complexes and coastal La Jolla
Complex occupations were occupied by the same group on a seasonal round. Another hypothesis
suggests that Native Americans had large village sites occupied year-round with little change in
diet (White 1963). True (1970) hypothesized that Late Period settlement patterns included a winter
village site at lower elevations and a summer village site in the mountains with occupation based
on seasonal subsistence.
Given that sufficient faunal remains are recovered as a result of the data recovery program, then
research hypothesis listed below and study topics will be addressed:
HO: During the Holocene, the environment of the coastal plain changed through time. The
apparent difference in faunal consumption at CA-SDI-8797 is a reflection of the changing
environment of the coastal plain.
Hl: During the Holocene, the environment of the coastal plain was stable, thus changes in
faunal consumption cannot be equated with natural changes.
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Study Topics
Does site CA-SDI-8797 represent both Early Period and/or Late Period components, and can
environmental change in the faunal assemblage be identified?
Does site CA-SDI-8797 represent a specialized food processing locality or, conversely, does it
represent a campsite wherein a wide range of foods were gathered and processed?
Data Needs
Data necessary to address the question of economic strategy includes flora and faunal remains to
permit the reconstruction of diet or dietary practices and preferences of the site occupants. The
presence of particular species of plants and animals allows for a more complete appraisal of the
various environmental niches exploited by the site occupants.
Methods for interpreting the data include protein residue analysis of selected artifacts to identify
what flora and faunal materials were processed at the site; speciation of the recovered faunal
assemblage, with special attention to evidence of butchering or cooking; and the identification of
species within preferred habitats, and the placement of these speciated remains within the
ecological model to reconstruct the habitat(s) exploited by the site occupants.
On the basis of previous studies, pollen and phytolith preservation may be poor and since this is a
costly procedure, it should only be undertaken when intact subsurface levels and/or features are
present. Protein residue analysis from recovered ground stone implements and flaked tools will
also be necessary. It may be necessary to process relatively large numbers of ground stone and
lithic tools to obtain protein residue information for habitation sites.
Artifacts recovered from the site can also provide inferential information regarding subsistence
exploitation. For example, if plant material is not found, the presence of mortars, manos, and
metates provides evidence that flora and faunal material was processed at the site. Immunological
studies of residues on tools from the site may provide data relating to both the use of tools and to
resources exploited.
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Methods of Collection
Shellfish and faunal remains will be collected from excavated units and dry-screened soils will be
processed using a screen no larger than 1/8-inch mesh. Field methods are discussed in Section 1.9.
Care will be taken that shell and bone are thoroughly dry prior to storage. Standard methods for
collecting soil samples for pollen and phytolith analysis will be followed. This will include column
soil samples (minimally lOxlO cm in size) from unit excavations with the samples removed in 10-
cm levels (100 cubic cm per sample) using a trowel cleaned with distilled water. The samples will
be placed in clean resealable plastic bags with an appropriate attached label. A surface soil sample
will also be collected for comparative purposes. Soil samples below and adjacent to features will
be collected in the same manner: using a clean trowel, and stored in clean resealable plastic bags.
In every case, labels will be attached to the outside of the bag and not placed inside the bag.
Artifacts submitted for protein residue analysis may be washed with cool water; however, soap,
detergent, or other chemicals will not be used (see Section 1.10.4).
Expectations
Inland temporary camps and milling stations produce low amounts of faunal material and therefore
do not produce sufficient information to address this type of research question. Whereas, large
Late Period village sites contain abundant faunal remains and can provide adequate samples to
address subsistence and environmental setting types of research questions. Given that the previous
excavation of two lxl-m units produced 532 bone fragments identified as primarily small mammal,
with large mammal and bird, it is estimated that over I 0,000 bone fragments will be available to
address this research question.
D. Trade and Travel
To what extent are trade and travel evidenced at site CA-SDI-8797? Early travelers and
ethnographers noted the presence of Native American trails and trade activities among
different cultural groups in the southern California region. The procurement of lithic
resources, such as serpentine, chalcedony, chert, jasper, obsidian, and steatite, may identify
contact with other cultural groups, as these materials were not available in the local area.
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Although many other trade items were perishable, what recovered archaeological evidence
demonstrates trade and/or travel?
Several exotic lithic materials ( e.g., obsidian, and Piedra de Lumbre chert) have been identified as
trade items. Their occurrence at San Diego County sites aids in delineating travel/trade routes.
More research with exotic material found in context will be necessary to determine the extent of
trade, what materials were traded, and if trade materials and routes changed through time.
Generally, if obsidian was present in early and middle Holocene sites in San Diego County, then it
was obtained from the Coso Range, located over 300 miles north, in north central California.
Obsidian from late Holocene sites is usually Obsidian Butte obsidian from the Imperial Valley.
Obsidian was also available from Mexico and other sources not presently identified.
Other lithic materials not local to the area, but which may have come from nearby sources, include
jasper, chert, and chalcedony. These generally occur at sites as very small retouch flakes or as
finished items, suggesting that the items were procured in a finished stage. Thus, they would have
been trade items. If they had been obtained by direct procurement, then the raw material and early
stages of tool production would have been present. Sources for these materials need to be
identified, as well as sites near the sources where the material was worked in order to more fully
understand the trade network involved. Neutron activation analysis has been used successfully to
source these exotic materials.
Steatite sources are present in southern San Diego County and include a fairly large quarry, the
Stonewall Quarry in Rancho Cuyamaca State Park (True 1970). Another known quarry, the
Jacumba Valley Quarry, is near the U.S./Mexico border, about 95 km (59 miles) from the Pacific
Ocean (Polk 1972). Neutron activation has been used successfully to match specific steatite
artifacts to specific sources or quarries and would provide valuable information for identifying
trade/travel directions.
The shell that occurs in most of the sites is evidence of travel to lagoons or open coast, or trade
with groups occupying those regions. The closest source of shellfish is approximately 1.2 km
(0.7. mile) to the north. Did the occupants travel to the lagoon and/or open shore? Did they obtain
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Olivella shell and make the spire-lopped beads or did they trade for these decorative artifacts?
Were the Olivella shells Pacific coast or Gulf of California species?
If trade materials are recovered as a result of the data recovery program, research hypotheses such
as those listed below can be addressed:
HO: During the early Holocene, trade was long-distance, possible through trading partners in a
down-the-line pattern. Obsidian was traded in and came from primarily the Coso Range in east-
central California (Hughes and True 1987). During the middle Holocene, trade consisted of mutual
bartering with near neighbors, with Piedra de Lumbre chert from northern coastal San Diego a
preferred lithic import. During the late Holocene, trade was practically non-existent and a few
trade materials, such as obsidian from Obsidian Butte, are present in the artifactual assemblages.
Hl: Trading for preferred lithic material was a common practice throughout the Holocene with no
change in direction or distance.
Study Topics
(a) Is there evidence of trading contact or travel?
(b) What was the nature of cultural contact-continuous, sporadic, or limited?
( c) What are the inferred routes of trade?
( d) What economic needs, if any, were met through contact and trade?
Data Needs
(a) Recovery and analysis of an adequate sample of cultural material that includes trade goods.
These items include obsidian, chert, steatite, chalcedony, desert lithic material, and beads.
B. Identification of the source of trade items.
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Methods of Collection
Both surface collection and subsurface excavation will be conducted. Given the results of previous
work and the proposed 2% sample data recovery program, a wide range of non-local materials are
anticipated. To recover trade items, lxl-m units will be excavated and all soil will be dry-screened
through hardware mesh that is not larger than 118th inch in size. Special studies will include
obsidian sourcing, identification of lithic materials, and shellfish speciation (see Sections 1.10.1,
1.10.2 and 1.10.5).
Expectations
Obsidian and other exotic lithic material will be recovered, generally in very small quantities, from
primarily habitation sites. Shell has been identified in both habitation sites and temporary camps in
the region. Shell can be sourced to general location (e.g., lagoon or rocky shore) and to trade (e.g.,
Olivella sp. from the Gulf of California as opposed to the local California coast). The range of
materials recovered during the testing program at CA-SDI-8797 are: Metavolcanic Granitics, and
Quartzite.
Also, it should be noted that ceramics may be an important tool to define cultural boundaries and
the presence or absence of trade/travel. Beginning on the west, the boundary for the
Kumeyaay/Dieguefio and Luisefio is identified as between Agua Hedionda Lagoon and Batiquitos
Lagoon and extends to just south of Escondido, and continues to the northeast to the Cupefio
territory. Recent work, as found in the Oceanside to Escondido report by Guerrero et al. (2001),
identifies ceramic sourcing as having the potential to be one of the best archaeological tools to
identify Late Period sites to Kumeyaay/Dieguefio or Luisefio occupation. A minimum of 30
ceramic fragments is required for a Luisefio site, as only one pottery type is usually recovered. The
two lxl-m units excavated produced six ceramics. Given the excavation of a 2% sample, a
minimum of 90 ceramic fragments should provide a sufficient sample to source the ceramics/clays
and therefore identify the site as Kumeyaay/Dieguefio or Luisefio. This work will also add to the
database of boundary definition as presented by Guerrero at the 2001 SCA Southern California
data-sharing meeting.
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On the local level it should be noted that chronology, diet, and trade and travel are identified as
County of San Diego Significant Research Questions.
1.6 RESEARCH PRIORITIES
Many of the research questions overlap, as they address environmental setting and prehistoric
occupation. Our priorities for this study are: chronology, lithic technology, settlement and
subsistence strategy, environmental setting, and trade and travel.
1. 7 DATA NEEDS
Site CA-SDI-8797 contains a range of artifacts and ecofacts that include: shell, bone, flaked lithic
tools, ground stone, shell, bone, and shell beads to address the research questions posed. If non-
local artifacts such as obsidian and chert are recovered, then these will be used to address the
question of trade and travel. The presence of shell and charcoal will be valuable in providing
material for dating units and levels in association with diagnostic tools or features. The dating of
these artifacts and features will greatly assist in addressing questions concerning chronology and
settlement pattern. Faunal remains (i.e., shell, fish bone, and mammal bone) will be collected,
speciated, and weighed to provide data to address both diet and seasonality. Artifacts and features
will be analyzed with respect to chronology. Shellfish will be analyzed to identify range and
quantity of species, as well as paleoenvironmental lagoon shellfish habitat. This analysis will assist
in understanding environmental setting and site function.
1.8 METHODS
The data required to address the research questions posed include a broad spectrum of cultural
material. The testing program demonstrated that at least two periods of occupation can be
investigated. The kinds of data necessary to approach these questions include a range of artifacts
and ecofacts.
To address the research questions posed, a number of diagnostic tools, shell samples and hearth
features, need to be recovered and analyzed, and where shell and other radiocarbon materials are
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present, dating will be conducted. Previous work at CA-SDI-8797 demonstrates the presence of a
variety of faunal remains including shellfish, fish and small to large mammals, and milling tools.
Cores, tools, and debitage are also present to provide the information necessary to address
questions of material preference and tool technology.
1.9 FIELD STRATEGY
The field strategy presented below is consistent with the Advisory Council on Historic
Preservation's Ideal Data Recovery Program. This Data Recovery Program provides mitigation of
proposed impacts to prehistoric site CA-SDI-8797. The program will consist of a 2-5 percent hand
and mechanical excavation program to be completed in three phases. Phase I will consist of a one
percent random sample. Phase II, one percent excavation, will be based on Phase I random
sampling and will expand on features and activity areas. Upon completion of Phases I and II,
backhoe trenching and/or light grading for that portion of CA-SDI-8797 to be developed, may be
used to locate and excavate/document additional prehistoric features and activity areas. All
features will be 50 to 100 percent exposed through hand excavation, and documented through
photographs and illustrations. Block unit excavations (i.e., 2x2-m or 4x4-m) will be placed in areas
with features and associated artifacts to expose intact living areas.
All of the lxl-m units will be excavated by hand in 10-cm levels. The soil will be dry-screened
through 1/8" mesh hardware cloth, and all of the material collected from each level will be sorted
and placed in plastic bags. Each bag will be marked with: the trinomial site number, the unit
coordinate designation from the site datum in meters (e.g., 15S/27E), date, and names of unit crew
members. A field form recording changes in soil, and the types and quantities of materials
collected will be completed for each level of each unit. Each 10-cm level will be thoroughly
examined for artifacts and plant and animal remains.
After features are located, they will be manually excavated, photographed and illustrated. If
charcoal or shell is available, then radiocarbon dating will be conducted. Soil from select hearths
may be floated for macro flora and fauna remains. Features will be compared and contrasted with
other features in San Marcos and San Diego County in general, and artifacts and ecofacts in
association with features will be used to address the research questions.
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The size of area excavated for each feature will vary depending on the type of feature. For
example, a 30x30-cm fire hearth may be completely exposed using a lxl-m unit, or a hearth may
require the excavation of a 2x2-m block exposure. The kinds of features anticipated within this
type of site usually consist of hearths, concentrations of rock, butchering areas, and house
floors/activity areas. Soil samples will be taken from features, but only one from each type of
feature may be floated for retrieval of ecofacts. This measure will provide comparative data for
defining the range of activities taking place at each type of feature and will serve to identify feature
use.
It is expected that fire hearths will yield charcoal, burned bone, and possibly burned or charred
seeds. Soil samples from activity areas will be taken on an as-need basis immediately adjacent to,
or under ground stone artifacts (i.e., whole or large fragments of metates). Flotation from soil
samples should consist predominantly of seeds. The flotation of soil samples from features will aid
in identifying past activities and the function of these features.
1.10 LABORATORY METHODS
Gallegos & Associates' standard system of cleaning, cataloging, and analyzing cultural remains will
be used for artifacts recovered during this study. These procedures include cleaning and separating
artifacts and ecofacts by material class for each unit level prior to cataloging. Each item, or group
of items, will be counted, weighed and/or measured, and given a consecutive catalogue number
marked directly on the artifact or on an attached label. Additionally, each item will be analyzed for
specific characteristics peculiar to each material class. All cataloged items will be divided into
typological categories and placed within appropriately labeled boxes for interim storage at Gallegos
& Associates' cultural resource laboratory.
All artifacts and ecofacts collected will be treated using accepted and appropriate archaeological
procedures. Initial laboratory work will include washing and/or brushing artifacts and cataloging.
Artifacts will be sorted into classes, such as bifaces, cores, bone tools, beads, milling tools, and
flakes. Cataloging will provide basic data such as count, measurement, weight, material, condition,
and provenience. The catalogue will also provide information as to horizontal and vertical
distribution of cultural material.
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Specialized studies will be conducted after the initial sorting and cataloging. The number and type
of specialized studies completed for this report depends on the materials recovered and the level of
research and specialized studies to be completed include; lithic technological analysis, shell
analysis, obsidian hydration and sourcing, residue analysis, faunal analysis, and radiocarbon dating.
Specialized studies on specific material classes are discussed below.
1.10.1 Lithic Analysis
Analytical Methods
Technological lithic analysis based upon replicative data will be conducted for all flaked stone
artifacts recovered. All lithic artifacts will also be examined on the basis of raw material types and
reduction stage categories. Reduction stage flake categories will be defined by comparmg
technological attributes of replicated artifacts from known and cataloged flaked stone tool
reduction technologies to prehistoric controls. In tum, by comparing the prehistoric artifacts
(controls) to the known artifacts in terms of manufacture, reduction stages will be assigned to
technologically diagnostic debitage. Some debitage, however, will be considered technologically
undiagnostic due to the lack of attributes on fragmentary pieces.
Technological debitage analysis based upon replicative data (Flenniken 1981) was selected over
other analytical methods to obtain processual reduction stage identifications. Methods such as size-
grading (Ahler 1989) or morphological attribute analyses (length, width, thickness, weight, or
completeness of flake)(Sullivan and Rozen 1985) do not allow processual anthropological
modeling of specific technological activities. Analyses dependent on metric data provide the
analyst with size-descriptive information only; they do not allow reliable identification of
prehistoric behaviors. Metric analyses do not take into account crucial variables such as raw
material type, quality, shape, and flakeability, nor do they consider the skill level of the prehistoric
knapper, the reduction sequence(s), or the intended end product(s).
Size-grading of debitage as a form of "technological" analysis is also ineffectual as a means of
providing accurate prehistoric lithic technological information (Scott 1985, 1990, 1991). In one
case where samples of debitage from six different sites were subjected to both size-grading
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analyses and technological analyses in an effort to define the lithic reduction activities that
occurred at each site, Scott (1985:69) found that " ... size-grading artificially separates debitage
into classes that do not accurately reflect lithic reduction."
Ahler's (1989) work concerning size-grading analysis or "mass analysis of flaking debris" is the
most comprehensive study to date. However, even using experimental controls, size-grading
analysis proves inadequate for making inferences as to the reduction process due to the
qualifications placed on interpretive comparisons. For example, Ahler's (1989) reduction model
does not apply to multiple-material sites where the size, shape, and quality of the original raw
materials may have influenced reduction strategies. Multiple flaking episodes are said to require
interpretation through multi-variate statistical analysis even though statistics are not capable of
"interpreting" data. Ahler's approach provides little or no accurate technological information
concerning lithic reduction techniques because of inherent methodological errors regarding
scientific experimental procedure. Reasoned sampling of large assemblages combined with
technological attribute and stage analysis is more informative than are low-level descriptions of
complete, large assemblages.
Replicative systems analysis (RSA) is a methodological concept designed to understand the
behavior prehistorically applied to flaked stone artifacts (Flenniken 1981). The method involves
replicating, through flintknapping experimentation, a hypothesized sequence (based upon debitage
frequencies documented during analysis) of lithic reduction employed at a particular archaeological
site. By comparing the prehistoric debitage with cataloged experimental debitage, it is possible to
determine the reduction techniques and sequence(s) that were employed at a given site by
prehistoric knappers. Experimentation has also demonstrated that many by-products associated
with tool manufacture can be mistaken for functional tools such as "scrapers" (Flenniken and
Haggarty 1979).
The RSA approach offers a reliable means to both identify and demonstrate the method(s) by which
prehistoric knappers reduced available stone into flaked stone tools and weapons. Because
flintknapping techniques are learned rather than innate behavior, reduction strategies can be both
culturally and temporally diagnostic (Flenniken 1985; Flenniken and Stanfill 1980). Thus, by
studying the reduction technologies employed at archaeological sites, it is possible, once the
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technological foundation based upon numerous technological analyses has been established, to
correlate sites in time and space by identifying related or similar lithic technologies (Flenniken and
Stanfill 1980). The correlations may aid future research involving descriptions of regional mosaics
of human activity patterns as they vary through time. In regions where volcanic or acidic
sediments preserve very little of the archaeological record except stone artifacts, or where
prehistoric activities left little or no traces, this method of gathering information can be extremely
productive. The RSA approach to lithic analysis is useful and appropriate because it focuses on
determining what lithic technologies were used at a particular site, how these technologies may
have changed through time, and whether these changes correlate to specific time periods.
Attributes evidenced on the prehistoric debitage, in conjunction with experimental analogs, will be
used to identify technologically diagnostic debitage, which enables flakes to be assigned to specific
experimentally derived reduction stages (Flenniken 1978, 1981). The remaining debitage will not
be ascribed to any reduction stage because of the fragmentary nature of the specimens; therefore, it
will be characterized as technologically undiagnostic, although attributes such as material type,
heat treatment, and presence/absence and type of cortex will be noted.
Debitage classification attributes will be divided into reduction-oriented technological categories,
and these categories will then be segregated into stages. Stage 1, core reduction debitage is defined
on the basis of amount and location of cortex on the dorsal surface, platform attributes, dorsal arris
count and direction, and flake cross/long-section configuration. Stage 2, bifacial reduction
debitage is classified on the basis of multi-faceted platform configuration and location, location of
remnant bulb of force, dorsal arris count and direction, flake termination, flake cross/long-section
orientation, and presence or absence of detachment scar. Stage 3, percussion bifacial thinning
debitage will be segregated on the basis of multi-faceted platform configuration, size, lipping, and
location, dorsal arris count and direction, flake termination, cross/long-section orientation, and
presence or absence of detachment scar. Stage 4, pressure bifacial reduction debitage will be
separated on the basis of multi-faceted platform configuration and location, dorsal arris count and
direction, flake termination, platform-to-long axis geometry, cross/long-section orientation, and
presence or absence of detachment scar. Undiagnostic fragments (flake fragments, with or without
cortex) will be defined as such. These reduction-oriented technological categories will be further
segregated on the basis of geological material types such as metavolcanic, vein quartz,
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metasedimentary, quartzite, chert, and obsidian. Interpretation of the reduction sequence from this
site will be determined using only the technologically diagnostic debitage, whereas discussions
concerning lithic raw material types include all debitage and formed artifacts.
Depending on the amount and type of debitage recovered, the sample will be analyzed at 100% or
sub-sampled to address the questions posed. The sample of the debitage, recovered from
excavation units, will be analyzed, identified, and assigned to specific technological categories and
stages. Technologically diagnostic debitage will be assigned to a specific reduction category, and
served as the basis for interpretation of lithic technology. Since the artifacts recovered from the
site are intra-site similar in technological character, the sample of the entire excavated assemblage
may be small, and technological change from level one through the deepest level may not be
identified. Consequently all artifacts from the site may be combined for the purpose of
interpretation of the site's lithic technology.
Not all flaked stone reduction technologies are the same throughout prehistory even within one
locality such as southern California, or within one formed artifact class. For example, biface
reduction sequences may vary technologically from site to site as a result of cultural/temporal
differences even though the same raw lithic material is present at these sites. By identifying
technologically diagnostic debitage from sites, specific reduction technologies can be easily
segregated.
Ground Stone Tools
These tools were used primarily for vegetal processing; however, ethnographic records indicate
that bone, clay for pottery, and pigments for paint were also ground with these implements (Gayton
1929; Kroeber 1970; Spier 1978). Ground stone tools were first separated into four groups: manos,
metates, pestles, and mortar/bowls, recognizing, of course, that all four groups in actuality feature
complex tools that have two primary parts. Attributes selected for the discussion of ground stone
tools are most amenable to comparisons with similar artifacts from other sites in the region.
Manos: Attributes important in the classification of manos include cobble or shaped, number of
faces used (bifacial or unifacial) to determine extent of usage, end battering (presence or absence
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resulting from roughening grinding surfaces), outline, and cross-section. The shape of a mano can
aid in identifying the type of metate (i.e., shallow or deep basin) used with the mano. Shaping is
important in determining the length of occupation of the site: the time needed to shape a proper
mano woudd not be taken if the user only meant to employ the mano for a day or two and then
discard it. Shaping denotes an unnecessary amount of time expended to make an object
aesthetically pleasing.
Metates: Ground stone fragments will be identified as metate fragments based on the presence of
at least one concave ground surface. Both slab (thin and highly portable) and block (thick and
heavy) metates may be present. Some may have been used unifacially and others bifacially,
denoting the amount of time spent grinding.
Miscellaneous Artifacts
Miscellaneous artifacts include specimens more esoteric in nature and items that cannot be placed
in the above categories. These generally denote status and may include beads and pendants, or, in
the case of ritual/ceremonial activities may include shaman crystals and hematite (red or yellow
paint stone). Other items classified under the miscellaneous category include tarring pebbles,
boiling stones, and manuports.
1.10.2 Faunal Analysis
Shell is present and will be identified, sorted, counted, and weighed by species. Use of this data
will contribute to answering questions regarding diet, environmental setting and change through
time, and settlement patterns.
Bone is present and will be identified by genus and species when possible. When species
identification is not possible, the bone will be identified to successively higher levels of
classification, settling on terms such as small, medium, or large vertebrate mammal. Elements will
then be identified as burned and unburned. When possible, cooking methods will be discussed.
Faunal information, including number of individual species and weight by species, will be
tabulated by unit and by level. If otoliths (fish ear bones) are present, they will be analyzed as to
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species, size of fish, and season of capture. When possible, age of capture of identifiable
specimens will be estimated. Bird bone, wherever possible, will be identified to family, genus,
and/or species, as the information about migratory birds can add to the data for determining
seasonality.
Methods
Each bone will be examined to determine: (1) element; (2) right or left side; (3) highest taxonomic
category; ( 4) evidence of burning, and if so, degree of oxidation; and ( 5) evidence of butchering,
and if so, method of butchering. Comparative skeletal collections used in the identification process
included those from Scripps Institute of Oceanography as well as from private collections. Bone
atlases (Lawrence 1951; Nickel et al. 1986; Olsen 1985; Sandefur 1977; Schmid 1972)
supplemented the analysis.
Categories
Categories used in this analysis include:
(1) Burned: Bone elements or fragments in this category show color change from exposure to
heat or fire ( oxidation). Colors may include:
• Brown: indicates exposure to heat, but little or no exposure to open flames.
• Black: shows direct exposure to open flames (i.e., roasting or discard in a fire).
• Blue/White ( calcined): denotes direct exposure to a fire hotter than 800° Celsius
(Ubelaker 1978:34), and may represent bone that was severely burned during
preparation. If flesh was present on the bone during exposure to the fire, the bone
would exhibit signs of warping and shrinking (Ubelaker 1978:34). Calcined bone may
also be the result of having been discarded in a fire hearth (Wing and Brown 1979:109).
(2) Unburned: No evidence of burning or oxidation.
(3) Butchered: Bone with evidence of processing by slicing or chopping actions.
( 4) Lizard: Small animal bone fragments, which are usually mandible fragments with
homodont teeth that are straight instead of curved like snake teeth, or long-bone fragments
that are split and funnel-shaped, or vertebrae with ball and socket features with a flattened
vertebral foramen.
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(5) Snake: Vertebrae with ball and socket features with a domed-shaped vertebral foramen.
(6) Teleostei: Funnel-shaped vertebrae with/without the spinous process attached, and other
skeletal elements considered as bony fish.
(7) Ray/Skate: Drum-shaped vertebrae that are from cartilaginous fish (rays/skates,
shark), as well as spines/hooks.
(8) Elasmobranch: Drum-shaped vertebrae that are from cartilaginous fish (rays/skates, shark).
When species identification as noted above, is not possible, the bone will be identified to
successively higher levels of classification. These include:
(1) Small Mammal: All non-diagnostic vertebrate fragments, with size between a
mouse and a jackrabbit.
(2) Medium Mammal: All non-diagnostic vertebrate fragments, for which sizes are larger than
a jackrabbit, but smaller than a deer.
(3) Large Mammal: All non-diagnostic vertebrate fragments, for which sizes are deer-size and
larger.
The quantification of faunal material can be studied with several methods. The methods used in
individual studies are usually determined by the sample size and type of site under investigation.
Two methods will be used in this study: the number of identified specimens per taxon (NISP),
which represents the total number of specimens within a category; and the minimum number of
individuals (MNI), which represents the minimum number of individuals within a genus and
species category.
1.10.3 Ceramic Analysis
The cross section of each ceramic fragment will be analyzed to identify specific mineral inclusions.
The San Diego region is divided into different geologic zones, which include the coastal plains, the
Peninsular Range mountains, and the Salton Trough desert. The coast and desert regions contain
alluvial clays made from marine and lacustrine sedimentary rock, while the Peninsular Range
mountains contain residual clays made from gabbroic-granitic materials. By identifying mineral
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inclusions of the ceramics specific to each of these geologic zones, data on the possible trade and
movement of the people who once occupied the site can be obtained.
• Tizon Brown Ware
Prior research on San Diego ceramics has resulted in the identification of two different ceramic
wares, brown ware and buff ware (Rogers 1936:4). Brown wares are commonly referred to as
mountain wares, also known as Tizon Brown Ware. Tizon Brown Ware was originally associated
with the northwestern Arizona region (Euler 1959). Many of the southern California ceramics were
later included under this name, indicating that there is some regional continuity between the
Arizona and Southern California ceramics, which there is not. As a result, there has been a
tendency to classify southern California ceramics under the all-inclusive Tizon Brown Ware term,
without any subtypes. Problems arise with this classification because of the different variations of
Tizon Brown Ware in Southern California. Moreover, many brown ware sherds are not restricted
to mountain sites and can be found along the coast and inland near the Salton Sea (Van Camp
1979:47). Tizon Brown Ware vessels were shaped using the paddle-and-anvil technique and were
made from residual granitic-derived clays. Residual clays are primarily found in the mountain and
coastal areas of San Diego County. These clays are the end product of weathering and breakup of
gabbroic and granitic outcroppings of the Peninsular Range Batholith. Along the western side of
the Peninsular Range, more gabbroic rocks are found and are characterized by a high frequency of
plagioclase and amphibole. Along the east side, which slopes and extends into the desert region,
are granitic rocks. There is a decline in the frequency of amphibole in the granitic rocks, but a
higher concentration of biotite mica and quartz (Hildebrand et al., n.d.). Clays from the eastern
granitic side have few to no amphibole minerals (Hildebrand et al., n.d.). The clays contained in
Tizon Brown Ware originate along the western gabbroic side of the Peninsular Range and thus
contain inclusions of plagioclase, quartz, mica, and amphibole.
• Lower Colorado Buff Ware
Besides Tizon Brown Ware, the other common ceramic ware found in Southern California is buff
ware. Buff ware ceramics are commonly referred to as a desert ware, also known as Lower
Colorado Buff Ware. Buff wares are made from sedimentary clays that result from the mixture of
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soil and water, where the coarse particles get left behind and the fine particles are deposited some
distance from the parent source. Sedimentary clays are finer in texture and have a more
homogenous composition when compared to mountain clays (Rice 1987:37). These types of clays
can be found in former lake bottoms and alluvial deposits in the Colorado Desert and Imperial
County near Lake Cahuilla. Lower Colorado Buff Ware vessels found in the San Diego region
were also shaped using the paddle-and-anvil technique. The minerals contained in Lower Colorado
Buff Ware include quartz, feldspar, rare instances of amphibole, and some mica.
• Salton Brown Ware
The classification for ceramic wares in the San Diego Region does not allow for a third type of
ware that is found in the San Diego region, Salton Brown Ware. Salton Brown Ware is another
desert ware, which has a similar appearance to that of Tizon Brown Ware. Lower Colorado Buff
Ware is easily discernible from both brown wares, however distinguishing Tizon Brown Ware and
Salton Brown Ware is not as simple because these two brown wares cannot be differentiated upon
visual inspection. Salton Brown Ware originates along the eastern side of the Peninsular Range and
has a higher content of mica, quartz, and a near to absence of amphibole when compared to Tizon
Brown Ware. Salton Brown Ware vessels were also shaped using the paddle-and-anvil technique.
Current research is being conducted on the mineral composition of pottery thin-sections because of
the similar appearances that Tizon Brown Ware and Salton Brown Ware retain (Hildebrand et al.,
n.d.). In order to differentiate the two brown wares, a fresh edge must be broken off the sherd to
examine the cross section. Examining the outer appearance of the sherd does not provide enough
information about the mineral composition of the sherds and can lead to mistakes in ceramic ware
identification. In Hildebrand's thin-section study, the Salton Brown Ware sherds had an average
mineral composition of 60 percent quartz, 10 percent plagioclase, 10-20 percent biotite, 5 percent
muscovite, and 5 percent amphibole (Hildebrand et al., n.d.). The thin section study of the Tizon
Brown Ware sherds indicated an average mineral composition of 50 percent quartz, 20 percent
plagioclase, 20 percent amphibole, 4 percent biotite, and 1 percent muscovite (Hildebrand et al.,
n.d.). These results suggest that Salton Brown Ware ceramics have higher percentages of quartz
and mica and an almost absence of amphibole, while Tizon Brown Ware has a higher percentage of
amphibole and plagioclase.
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Methods
A related method used for the analysis of the ceramics at CA-SDI-8797, that can differentiate
between Salton Brown Ware and Tizon Brown Ware is through the use of a low-powered
microscope. As with the thin-section study, an edge must be broken off and the fresh break
examined under the microscope to look for the presence or absence of amphibole. Samples that
contain amphibole will be identified as Tizon Brown Ware, and samples that have an absence of
amphibole will be identified as Salton Brown Ware. Samples in which there are uncertainties in
identification will be placed in the "unknown" category to reduce the percentage of error. This
process will be conducted twice to ensure the correct identification. On samples that have two
different results, a third examination of the sherd will be performed. Although amphibole can be
found in some Salton Brown Ware fragments, it is rare (Hildebrand et.al., n.d.).
1.10.4 Microbotanical, Macrobotanical, and Protein Residue Studies
The importance of protein residue, phytolith, and pollen studies, which assist in determining tool
use, diet, and environmental reconstruction, cannot be overstressed. Although relatively new and
somewhat rare in the literature, these kinds of studies are necessary to answer research questions
concerning settlement and subsistence. If tools are recovered that are good candidates for residue
analysis, then they will be submitted for protein residue studies. It is anticipated that a minimum of
10 and a maximum of 30 tools will be submitted for residue analysis.
The residue study will be conducted by Dr. Margaret Newman of the University of Calgary. The
technique for blood residue identification used by Dr. Newman involves lifting blood residues from
the artifact surfaces and edge margins and then examining them with a coated paper strip that is
sensitive to blood hemoglobin. Confirmed blood deposits are then subjected to a chemical process
that crystallizes the hemoglobin. Since the size and shape of hemoglobin crystals differs among
animals and man, it is possible to identify the blood samples according to species. This procedure
could be helpful in confirming the functional aspect of the stone tools and in identifying the
specific game animals that were part of the prehistoric diet.
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1.10.5 Obsidian Source Identification and Hydration Rim Measurements
When available, obsidian samples will be submitted for source identification and/or hydration rim
measurements. Usually, the number of obsidian items recovered is small, and all samples large
enough (1.0 cm in maximum measurement) are submitted for analysis. It is anticipated that
approximately 30 obsidian samples will be submitted for sourcing and hydration analysis.
1.10.6 Radiocarbon Dating Analysis
When shell, bone, or charcoal from hearths or other reliable materials are available for radiocarbon
dating, a minimum of four and a maximum of ten samples will be submitted. Radiocarbon dating
provides valuable information for site placement within the prehistoric chronology for San Diego
County.
1.11 REPORTPREPARATION
The format for the final report follows Office of Historic Preservation Guidelines (1989) and will
be filed at the appropriate state clearinghouse(s).
The contents of the report include the following:
1. Text includes but is not limited to: an abstract; a discussion of field methods (i.e.,
survey methods, surface collection methods, number, size, depth, and placement of
surface scrapes, STPs, and units); results of analyses, including tables that provide
cultural material by provenience (unit, depth); the synthesis of data; and the results of
special studies conducted; the description of cultural stratigraphy; an evaluation of site
significance; and discussion of the results in terms of relevant research questions.
2. Graphics will be used to delineate the horizontal and vertical extent of the site( s ). All
maps will include a site datum, a north arrow (marked true north or magnetic north), and
a scale in meters. Each site will have a site map showing the location of lxl-m units,
significant landforms and/or landmarks, surface cultural features, and surface artifact
collection areas. Maps will be used to show the location of collected surface artifacts by
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point provenience, surface scrapes, or collection cell. Sidewall profiles of selected units
will be included, and all features will be drawn with appropriate scales in metrics.
Drawings of temporally-diagnostic artifacts will be included, as well as photographs or
illustrations of sample artifact types recovered from the site.
Attachments will include a bibliography of all references cited in text, tables, and graphics; site
forms for new sites and updates of previously recorded sites; original reports of special studies
(e.g., radiocarbon submittal sheets and reports, obsidian analysis reports); catalogues of collected
material; resumes of key personnel; and any pertinent correspondence.
1.12 NATIVEAMERICANPARTICIPATION
The Native American Heritage Commission, as well as local Native American representatives, will
be notified of the proposed program and solicited for their input to the overall program by the
project manager/archaeologist. A Native American monitor will be invited to participate in the
data recovery program. The selection of the Native American Monitor was on the basis of
proximity to the project area and identified as a Luisefio Native American. Mark Mojado of the San
Luis Rey Band of Mission Indians, has been selected as the Native American Monitor and will be
on-site on a daily basis.
1.12.1 Provisions for Encountering Human Remains
Prior to starting fieldwork, a meeting with the appropriate Native American representative will be
conducted to discuss burial procedures. If human remains are encountered, then the specific
procedures outlined by the California Native American Heritage Commission (NARC) (1991), and
in accordance with Section 7050.5 of the Health and Safety Code, Section 5097.98 of the Public
Resources Code (Chapter 1492, Statutes of 1982, Senate Bill 297), and SB 447 (Chapter 44,
Statutes of 1987) will be followed. Section 7050.5 (c) will guide the potential Native American
involvement, in the event of discovery of human remains.
Specific measures to be followed should human remains be encountered include: 1) work will
cease in the immediate area of the burial; 2) The person in direct charge of the project will contact
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the County of San Diego Coroner; and 3) as per Section 7050.S(c) "If the coroner determines that
the remains are not subject to his or her authority, and if the Comer has reason to believe that the
human remains are those of a Native American, or has reason to believe they are those of a Native
American, he or she will contact the Native American Heritage Commission." The Native
American Heritage Commission, the local agency representative, and the authorized local tribal
representative will review and provide input as to further action. Under typical circumstances, the
Most Likely Descendent(s) (MLD) of the discovered remains will then be contacted by the NARC.
The MLD has 24 hours to make recommendations to the Project Owner/Environmental Compliance
Manager regarding treatment and disposition of the identified remains.
Alternatives for the disposition of human remains and associated artifacts include: 1) leaving
human remains in situ; 2) uncovering the human remains for analysis in situ; 3) removing human
remains for analysis and curation; 4) removing human remains for analysis and repatriation to local
Native Americans affiliated with the local area; and 5) removing human remains with no analysis
for repatriation to Native Americans affiliated with the local area.
1.13 PERSONNEL
Dennis Gallegos, Project Manager, Tracy Stropes (Lab Director), and Monica Guerrero M.A.,
(RP A) Project Archaeologist will provide project direction and will be responsible for the overall
quality of the study. Larry Tift, Field Director, will be on site daily to direct the field effort; and,
Tracy Stropes, Lab Director, will will provide lithic analysis and ensure that artifacts are handled in
a professional manner, and that materials for special studies are submitted to subconsultants.
Resumes for key personnel are provided in the attached Statement of Qualifications.
1.14 CURATION
Curation of artifacts collected as a result of this project will be permanently curated at a repository
(i.e., Pechanga Band of Luisefio Mission Indians or the San Diego Archaeology Center) acceptable
to the client and the City of Carlsbad. Curation at an acceptable repository will complete the data
recovery program. The cost for curation will be borne by the client responsible for the
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impact/effect. Interim curation during analysis and report preparation will be at Gallegos &
Associates.
1.15 MONITORING
An archaeologist will monitor all grading and earth moving activities during construction in the
vicinity of CA-SDI-8797. Should burials/cremations or features be located, grading and/or earth
moving activities will be halted for a period of 72 hours to allow for excavation and removal.
Analysis of artifacts and ecofacts recovered during monitoring will also be included in the final
report.
1.16 REPORT SUBMITTAL
The draft report for review by the City of Carlsbad will be submitted in approximately twelve
weeks of completing all fieldwork and laboratory analysis. Copies of the final report will be
submitted to the City of Carlsbad, Grand Pacific Resorts, and to the South Coastal Information
Center at San Diego State University.
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Ahler, S.
SECTION2
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1989 Mass Analysis of Flaking Debris: Study the Forest Rather than the Tree. In
Alternative Approaches to Lithic Analysis, edited by D. Henry and G. Odell.
Archeological Paper of the American Anthropological Association, No. 1.
Almstedt, Ruth F.
1974 Bibliography of the Diegueiio Indians. Ramona: Ballena Press.
Bancroft, Hubert Howe
1886 History of California, 4 Volumes. The History Company, San Francisco.
Barrows, David Prescott
1900 Ethnobotany of the Cahuilla Indians of Southern California. University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois.
Bean, Lowell J.
1972 Mukat's People. University of California Press: Berkeley.
Bean, Lowell J. and Katherine Siva Saubel
1972 Temalpakh: Cahuilla Indian Knowledge and Usage of Plants. Malki Museum
Press, Banning, California.
Bedwell, S. F.
1970 Prehistory and Environment of the Pluvial Fork Rock Lake Area of South
Central Oregon. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, University of Oregon, Eugene.
Bull, Charles and Russell Kaldenberg
1976 Archaeological Investigations at the World Medical Foundation. Report
prepared for the Irvine Company. Ms. on file RECON, San Diego, California.
Burrus, Ernest J.
1979 Diario de! Capitan Comandante Fernando de Rivera y Moncada con un
Apendice Documental. Edicion Prologo (Espanol y Ingles) y notas por
Burrus. Ediciones Jose Porrua Turanzas, Madrid: Coleccion Chimalistac de
Libros y Docurnentos Acerca de la Nueva Espanol, Vol. 24 y 25.
Carrico, Richard L.
1976 Archaeological Sensitivity and Potentiality Survey for Richland
Neighborhood Study San Marcos, California. Westec Services, San Diego.
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Carrico, Richard L. and Taylor .
1983 Excavation of a Portion of Ystagua: A Coastal Valley Ipai Settlement. On
File at the South Coastal Information Center.
Cooley, Theodore G.
1982 Analysis and Interpretation of CA-Lan-844: A Prehistoric Quarry Workshop
and Factory in the Upper Palos Verdes Hills, Los Angeles County, California.
Master's thesis, on file at Department of Anthropology, California State
University, Los Angeles, California.
Cuero, Delfina
1968 The Autobiography of a Diegueiio Woman: As Told to Florence C. Shipek.
Dawson's Book Shop, Los Angeles, California.
Davis, Emma L., C. W. Brott and D. L. Weide
1969 The Western Lithic Co-tradition. In: San Diego Museum Papers, No. 6.
Davis, Owen K.
1992 Climatic Change in Coastal California Inferred from Pollen Analysis of San
Joaquin Marsh. In Quaternary Research, 37:89.
Drucker, Phillip
1939 Culture Element Distributions: Southern California. University of California
Publications in Anthropological Records, Berkeley, California: University of
California Press.
Dubois, Constance Goddard
1908 The Religion of the Luiseiio and Diegueiio Indians of Southern California.
Euler, R.
University of California Publications in American Archaeology and
Ethnology, Vol. 8, No. 3.
1959 Comparative Comments on California Pottery. Archaeological Resources
of Borrego State Park, edited by C. W. Meighan, pp. 41-44. University of
California Archaeological Survey, Annual Report, 1959:25-44. Los Angeles.
Flenniken, J. Jeffrey
1978 Reevaluation of the Lindenmeier Folsom: A Replication Experiment in Lithic
Technology. In: American Antiquity 43:473-480.
1981 Replicative Systems Analysis: A Model Applied to the Vein Quartz Artifacts
from the Hoko River Site. Laboratory of Anthropology Reports of
Investigations No. 59. Washington State University, Pullman
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1985 Stone Tool Reduction Techniques as Cultural Markers. In: Stone Tool
Analysis: Essays in Honor of Don E. Crabtree, edited by M. G. Plew, J. C.
Woods, and M. G. Pavesic, pp. 265-276. University of New Mexico Press,
Albuquerque.
2000 Cultural Resource Survey and Test Report for the Wetmore Property, Otay
Mesa, San Diego County, California. Unpublished report on file at South
Coastal Information Center, San Diego State University, San Diego,
California.
Flenniken, J., and J. C. Haggarty
1979 Trampling as an Agency in the Formation of Edge Damage: An Experiment
in Lithic Technology. In: Northwest Anthropological Research Notes 13(2):
208-214.
Flenniken, J., and A. Stanfill
1980 A Preliminary Technological Examination of 20 Archaeological Sites Located
During the Cultural Resource Survey of the White Horse Ranch Public Land
Exchange. In: Contract Abstracts and CRM Archeology 1(1):23-30.
Franklin, Randy
1977 Site Record Form for CA-SDI-5633. Form on file, South Coastal Information
Center, San Diego State University, San Diego, California.
Gallegos, Dennis R.
1985 Batiquitos Lagoon Revisited. Casual Papers of the Cultural Resource
Management Center. Vol. 2, No. 1, San Diego State University, San Diego,
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